Aristotle · a new plain-English translation from the original language
1| [section 1] That states of mind follow bodily conditions, and are not in their own right unaffected by the motions of the body, is entirely clear in cases of drunkenness and of sickness; for states of mind are seen to change greatly under the affections of the body. [section 2] And conversely it is evident that the body shares in the affections of the soul, in cases of erotic passion, fears, griefs, and pleasures. And still more, in the things that come about by nature one could see that body and soul are so related to one another, growing together as they do, that each becomes the cause of most of the other's affections. [section 3] For no animal has ever come to be of such a kind as to have the form of one animal and the mind of another; body and soul always belong to the same animal, so that a given kind of body must necessarily be followed by a given kind of mind. And further, those who are expert about each of the other animals are able to judge from its outward appearance — horsemen judging horses, and huntsmen dogs. [section 4] If these things are true (and they are always true), then it would be possible to practice physiognomics. Now those who have practiced physiognomics before us have gone about it in three ways, each along a single line. Some practice physiognomics from the genera of animals, positing for each genus some form of animal and a corresponding state of mind.
2| [section 5] Others, proceeding from these same genera, assumed that whoever has a body like the body of a given animal has also a soul like its soul. Others again did the same thing, but did not draw their evidence from all the animals, but from the human race itself, dividing it by nations, insofar as these differed in appearance and in character — for example Egyptians, Thracians, and Scythians — and made their selection of signs in a like manner. [section 6] Others again worked from the characters that show themselves on the surface, asking what disposition each expression follows upon — the expression of a man angry, or afraid, or in the grip of desire, and so for each of the other affections. It is possible to practice physiognomics along all these lines, and along still others besides, and to make one's selection of signs in dissimilar ways. [section 7] Now those who practice physiognomics from expressions of character alone go wrong, first, because some people who are not the same in nature have the same expressions on their faces — for instance the courageous man and the shameless man have the same expression, though far apart in their states of mind — and second, because at different times people do not keep the same expressions, but take on those of other people; for it has happened that people naturally given to distress have passed a day pleasantly and taken on the expression of a cheerful man, and conversely that a cheerful man has been grieved, so that the expression on his face has changed.
3| [section 8] Further still, one could draw sound inferences from these surface signs about only a few things. Those, again, who practice physiognomics from the beasts do not make their selection of signs correctly. For it is not possible, having gone through the appearance of each of the animals, to say that whoever is like that animal in body will also be like it in soul. For in the first place, speaking simply, no one would find a man so like a beast as all that — we resemble them only in some respect. [section 9] Further still, animals have few signs peculiar to themselves and many that are common to several kinds; so that when someone resembles an animal not in what is peculiar to it but in what is common, why should he be more like a lion than like a deer? For it is reasonable that the peculiar signs should signify something peculiar, and the common signs something common. The common signs, then, could give the physiognomist no clear information at all. [section 10] And if one were to pick out the signs peculiar to each of the beasts, one would not be able to say what they are signs of. For it is reasonable to expect a peculiar sign to signify something peculiar, yet nothing peculiar could be found belonging, at least in respect of mind, to any of the animals used in physiognomics; for the lion is not courageous alone, but many other things besides, nor is the hare cowardly alone, but countless other things as well.
4| [section 11] If, then, neither the common signs nor the peculiar ones yield anything clear when selected, one should not examine animal by animal, but should rather make one's selection from among human beings who undergo the same affection — for instance, if one is examining the signs of courage, one must take the courageous among the animals together as a single group and investigate what affections belong to all of them alike and to none of the other animals. [section 12] For if one were to make one's selection in this way and say that these are the signs of courage in the animals thus preferred, without first making sure that the affection of mind in question belongs to courage alone and not to something else besides, one would then be at a loss to say whether the signs belong to courage or to that other thing. Rather, one must make one's selection from the largest possible number of animals, and from animals that have no affection of mind in common other than the very one whose signs are under examination. [section 13] Now whatever signs are permanent would signify something permanent; but signs that come and go, how could they truthfully signify something in the mind that does not remain? For if one were to take as a sign something that is at one time present and at another absent, though otherwise permanent in kind, it could well be true, but it would not be a sound sign, since it does not always accompany the thing it is supposed to signify.
5| [section 14] Whatever affections arise in the soul without producing any change at all in the bodily signs that the physiognomist relies on could not be recognized by this craft — for instance, in matters of opinion and knowledge it is not possible to recognize a doctor or a lyre-player; for a man who has learned some piece of learning shows no change at all in the signs the physiognomist makes use of. [section 1] We must, then, define what sorts of things physiognomics is concerned with, since it is not concerned with everything, and from what sources each kind of sign is drawn, and then go on to explain the more conspicuous cases one by one. Physiognomics, then, as its very name states, is concerned with the natural affections of the mind, and with such acquired affections as, when they arise, alter the signs used in physiognomics. What these acquired affections are will be shown later. [section 2] I shall now state the classes from which the signs are drawn, and they are all of the following: physiognomists draw their signs from movements, from postures, from colors, from the character-expressions that show on the face, from the growth of hair, from smoothness of skin, from the voice, from the flesh, from the parts of the body, and from the whole shape of the body.
6| [section 3] Such, in general terms, is what physiognomists say about the whole classes within which the signs fall. Now if this account were unclear or hard to make sense of, what has been said would have to suffice as it stands. [section 4] But as things are, it is perhaps better to state more precisely, class by class, everything conspicuous among the subjects of physiognomics, giving the signs, saying what each of them is, and what it points to, wherever this has not already been made clear above. Colors, then, signify as follows: sharp, ruddy colors signify heat and a bloody constitution, while a fair-red complexion signifies good natural endowment, when this coloring occurs on smooth skin. [section 5] As for the growth of hair, soft hair signifies cowardice, and coarse hair courage. This sign has been taken from the whole range of animals. For the most cowardly are the deer, the hare, and sheep, and they have the softest hair; while the most courageous are the lion and the wild boar, and they carry the coarsest hair. [section 6] The same thing may be seen among birds too: in general, those that have coarse feathers are courageous, and those that have soft feathers cowardly, and the same thing can be seen part by part in quails and in cocks.
7| [section 7] Likewise the same thing occurs among the races of men: those living under the Bears are courageous and have coarse hair, while those toward the south are cowardly and carry soft hair. Hairiness around the belly signifies talkativeness. [section 8] This is traced back to the class of birds; for among bodily traits, hairiness around the belly is peculiar to a bird, and among mental traits, talkativeness. Flesh that is hard and naturally in good condition signifies insensitivity, while flesh that is smooth signifies someone naturally well-endowed but unsteady, unless this occurs on a strong body whose extremities are also firm. [section 9] Movements that are sluggish signify a soft mind, quick ones a hot-tempered one. As for the voice, one that is deep and strained signifies courage, one that is high-pitched and slack signifies cowardice. The shapes and the affections that appear on faces are read off by their resemblance to the affection. [section 10] For whenever someone undergoes an affection, his face becomes as it would be if he permanently had that expression; when someone is angry, the sign belongs to the same class as anger, that is, it is an irritable sign. The male is larger and stronger than the female, and the extremities of his body are stronger, fuller, better conditioned, and superior in every excellence.
8| [section 11] Stronger than the signs drawn from bodily parts are those taken from characters as they appear on the face, and those taken from movements and shapes. In general, to trust a single sign is naive; but when one takes several signs agreeing on one point, it is now more reasonable to suppose that the signs are true. [section 12] There is another method by which one might practice physiognomy; however, no one has yet attempted it. For example: if it is necessary that the irritable person, the person prone to distress, and the person of petty character be also envious, then even if there are no signs of envy itself, it would be possible, from those prior signs, for the physiognomist to discover the envious person as well; and this method, above all, would be the one proper to a person trained in philosophy. [section 13] For being able to see that, given certain things, something else must necessarily be so, we may suppose to be a mark proper to philosophy; and this is sometimes opposed to practicing physiognomy directly on the basis of the affections and the vices. [section 14] Concerning the voice: looking at it in terms of the affection, one might suppose that a high-pitched voice is assigned to the spirited person for two reasons. For the person who is indignant and angry tends to strain his voice and speak in a high pitch, while the person in a listless state relaxes his tone and speaks low.
9| [section 15] Among animals, in turn, the courageous ones are deep-voiced and the cowardly ones high-voiced: the lion and the bull, and the barking dog, and among cocks the spirited ones speak with a deep voice; but the deer and the hare are high-voiced. [section 16] But perhaps even in these cases it is better not to locate courage or cowardice in the voice's being deep or high-pitched, but rather to suppose that a vigorous voice belongs to the courageous, and a slack, weak one to the cowardly. [section 17] It is best, whenever the signs do not agree but conflict, to posit nothing, unless one can distinguish which signs are more trustworthy than which; and above all to refer them to species rather than to whole genera. For these are more similar to the thing under investigation; we are not doing physiognomy on the whole human race, but on certain individuals within that race. [section 1] Signs of the courageous person: coarse hair; an upright bodily posture; bones, ribs, and the extremities of the body strong and large; a belly that is broad and drawn in; shoulder blades that are broad and set apart, neither too tightly bound together nor entirely loose; a neck that is strong, not overly fleshy; a chest that is fleshy and broad; a hip drawn in; calves pulled in at the lower end; a bright, keen eye, neither too wide open nor entirely closed; skin on the body somewhat rough in color; a forehead that is sharp, straight, not large, lean, neither smooth nor entirely wrinkled.
10| [section 2] Signs of the cowardly person: thin, soft hair; a body that is hunched down, not brisk; calves drawn up toward the top; a somewhat sallow complexion about the face; eyes weak and blinking, and the extremities of the body weak, and small legs, and hands thin and long; loins small and weak; a posture that is tense in movement; not bold but supine and dazed-looking; the character shown on the face changeable, downcast. [section 3] Signs of the naturally well-endowed person: flesh that is rather moist and soft, not overly well-conditioned nor very fatty; the parts around the shoulder blades and neck rather lean, and likewise around the face; the parts around the shoulder blades bound close together, and the lower parts loose; the ribs supple; the back rather lean; the body reddish-white and clear; thin skin; hair neither too coarse nor too dark; a bright, moist eye. [section 4] Signs of the insensitive person: the parts around the neck and the legs fleshy, knit together, and bound close; the hip-socket round; the shoulder blades drawn up high; a forehead large, rounded, fleshy; a dull, sallow-green eye; the shins around the ankle thick, fleshy, and round; jaws large and fleshy; loins fleshy; legs long; neck thick; face fleshy, quite long. The movements, the posture, and the character that appears on the face are read off in the same way, by resemblance.
11| [section 5] Signs of the shameless person: a wide-open, bright eye; eyelids bloodshot and thick; slightly stooped; shoulder blades raised high; a posture not upright but tilted somewhat forward; quick in his movements; the body reddish; the complexion bloodshot; a round face; the chest drawn up. Signs of the modest person. [section 6] Slow in his movements, with slow speech and a breathy, gentle voice; a dark eye without brightness, neither too wide open nor entirely closed, blinking slowly; for eyes that blink quickly signify in some cases cowardice, in others a hot temper. [section 7] Signs of the good-tempered person: a forehead of good size, fleshy, and smooth; the region about the eyes rather low. The face appears rather sleepy-looking, neither piercing nor pensive. In his movements let him be slow and relaxed; in posture and in the character shown on his face let him appear not hasty but good-natured. [section 8] Signs of the ill-tempered person. Faces that are wrinkled, and lean eyes that are broken/downcast — and the breaking of the eyes in this way signifies two things at once, the soft and feminine on the one hand, and the downcast and ill-tempered on the other. In posture, low; in his movements, worn out. [section 9] Signs of the effeminate man: an eye that is broken/melting; knock-kneed; the head tilted to the right; the movements of the hands turned palm-upward and slack; and two kinds of gait, one in which he sways his hips as he goes, the other in which he holds his loins rigid; and a darting glance about with the eyes — of the sort Dionysius the sophist would have had.
12| [section 10] Signs of the harsh/bitter person: a face drawn back in a grimace; dark-skinned, lean; the features of the face pinched thin; the face wrinkled and fleshless; straight-haired and dark-haired. [section 11] Signs of the spirited person. An upright body, well-ribbed in posture, high-spirited, reddish; shoulder blades set apart, large, and broad; extremities large and firm; smooth about the chest and the groin; well-bearded; the growth of hair abundant, coming down low. [section 12] Signs of the gentle person. Strong in appearance, well-fleshed; flesh moist and abundant; of good size and well-proportioned; posture inclined backward; the growth of hair drawn back. Signs of the ironic/dissembling person: the features about the face plump, and the region about the eyes wrinkled; the face appears sleepy in character. [section 13] Signs of the small-souled person. Small-limbed, delicately built on a small scale, lean, small-eyed and small-faced — of the sort a Corinthian or Leucadian would be. Those fond of dice are weasel-elbowed and are also dancers. Those fond of abuse are the ones whose upper lip is raised; and in general their build is forward-leaning, reddish. [section 14] Compassionate people are those who are delicately built, fair-skinned, with moist eyes, and with the nostrils pinched thin at the top, and who are always weeping. These same people are also fond of women, tend to father female offspring, are erotic in temperament, retentive of memory, naturally gifted, and warm-blooded. The signs of these traits have already been stated. The compassionate person is the wise one, and the cowardly one, and the modest one; the pitiless person is the ignorant and shameless one.
13| [section 15] Good eaters are those in whom the distance from the navel to the chest is greater than the distance from there to the neck. Signs of lustfulness: a fair complexion, and hairiness with straight, thick, black hair; temples hairy with straight hair; an oily little eye, and a wanton one. [section 16] Fond of sleep are those who have the upper parts of the body larger, and who are vulture-like and hot, having flesh in good condition, and are graceful in form, and hairy about the belly. Those with good memories are those who have the upper parts smaller and graceful and more fleshy. [section 1] It seems to me that the soul and the body are affected together with one another; and the state of the soul, when it is altered, alters along with it the shape of the body, and again the shape of the body, when it is altered, alters along with it the state of the soul. For since it belongs to the soul to be distressed and to rejoice, it is evident that those who are distressed look gloomier and those who rejoice look cheerful. [section 2] Now if it were the case that, once the soul is dissolved, the shape it had impressed on the body still remained, then even so the soul and the body would be affected together, but they would not continue together throughout. But as it is, it is evident that each follows the other. This can be made especially clear from the following.
14| [section 3] For madness seems to be a condition of the soul, and physicians, purging the body with drugs and using certain regimens besides these, free the soul from madness. So by the treatments applied to the body, at one and the same time the shape of the body is loosened and the soul is freed from madness. [section 4] Since, then, both are loosened together, it is clear that they continue together with one another. It is also evident that shapes resembling the powers of the soul come to be attached to bodies, so that in animals everything is indicative of some one and the same thing. And of the many things animals do, some are affections peculiar to each kind of animal, others are common. [section 5] Now with respect to the peculiar functions of the soul the bodily affections too are peculiar, and with respect to the common functions the affections are common. Common, then, are wantonness and excess in matters of sex. Now wantonness is common to the beasts of burden, while the disposition toward sexual matters is common to donkeys and pigs. [section 6] Peculiar to dogs is being abusive, and to donkeys being free from grief. How one must divide the common from the peculiar has now been stated. But for all these matters much familiarity is needed, if one is to be capable of stating each of them for himself.
15| [section 7] For since the things that are observed on the body are said to be referred back to the resemblances that arise from animals and from actions, and certain other appearances arise from states of heat and of cold, and some of these signs that show themselves on bodies employ small differences and are called by the same name — for example the pallors that come from fear and those that come from exertion (for these employ the same name, and have but a small difference from one another) — since the difference is small it is not easy to recognize it, except for one who has acquired a discernment for the shape through familiarity with it. Now the quickest and best method is that from this overall discernment, and by using it in this way one can distinguish many things. [section 8] And it is useful not only in general but also for the selection of the signs; for each of the things selected must also fit, being of the sort that what is selected requires. [section 9] Further, in the selection of the signs, one must also use the syllogism, which one must employ wherever a case arises, adding to what is present what is fitting to it — for example, if someone is shameless and stingy, he would also be a thief and illiberal, a thief as a consequence of shamelessness, and illiberal as a consequence of stinginess. In each such case, then, one must fit the method to it in this manner.
16| [section 1] Now I will first try to distinguish, among animals, in what ways they properly differ with respect to being brave and cowardly, just and unjust. One must divide the class of animals into two forms, male and female, attaching to each form what is fitting to it. [section 2] They are alike as follows. We find that among wild animals we try to tame, the females are gentler and softer in soul than the males, and less robust, and more receptive of feeding and of being handled. So, being such, they would presumably be more faint-hearted than the males. [section 3] This is evident from our own case too, since when we are mastered by spirit we are harder to persuade otherwise, and we are especially strong in yielding nothing anywhere, and we are carried toward using force and doing whatever it is that our spirit is impelled toward. [section 4] It seems to me too that the females become more mischievous than the males, and more impulsive and less courageous. Now women, and the creatures reared about us, are quite evidently so; and as for the wild animals, all herdsmen and hunters agree that they are as has been said. [section 5]
17| But this too is clear, that in every kind the female has a smaller head than the male, and a narrower face, and a more slender neck, and weaker breasts, and less rib, and heavier-fleshed hips and thighs than the male, but knock-kneed and with thin shins, and daintier feet, and the whole shape of the body more pleasing rather than more noble, and less sinewy and softer, employing moister flesh. [section 6] The males are in all these respects the opposite, their nature being more courageous and more just in kind, while that of the female is more cowardly and more unjust. This being so, it appears that of all animals the lion has partaken most completely of the form of the male. [section 7] For it has a mouth of good size, a face rather square, not overly bony, an upper jaw that does not project forward but is balanced with the lower, a nose thicker rather than thinner, gray eyes, hollow, not overly round nor overly long, of moderate size, a brow of good size, a forehead square, somewhat hollow in the middle, and toward the brows and the nose, beneath the forehead, something like a cloud raised up. [section 8]
18| Above the forehead, along the nose, it has hairs slanting away as if brushed back, a head of moderate size, a neck of good length, of proportionate thickness, having tawny hair, neither bristling nor overly turned back; the parts about the collarbones looser rather than tightly closed; robust shoulders, and a youthful chest, and the back between the shoulders broad and well-ribbed and fairly well-backed; an animal less fleshy about the hips and thighs; legs strong and sinewy, a vigorous stride, and the whole body jointed and sinewy, neither too hard nor too moist. [section 9] It walks slowly, and takes long strides, and sways at the shoulders when it moves. Such, then, is the lion with respect to the body; with respect to the soul it is generous and free, great-souled and eager for victory, and gentle and just and affectionate toward those it associates with. [section 10] The leopard, of the animals reputed to be brave, is more feminine in form, except with respect to the legs; with these it works together and produces some effect of strength. [section 11] For it has a small face, a large mouth, small eyes, whitish, hollow, but rather shallow; a forehead somewhat long, more rounded toward the ears than flat; a neck very long and thin, a chest without ribs, and a long back, fleshy hips and thighs, but the parts about the flanks and belly rather smooth; its color mottled, and the whole of it unjointed and disproportioned.
19| [section 12] Such, then, is the bodily form; but as to the soul, it is petty and thievish and, to put it generally, deceitful. The animals that share most conspicuously in what seems to be courage have already been discussed, both as to the male form and the female form. As for the rest, whatever they happen to be, it is now easy to go through them. Whatever features from the animals it is fitting to observe together for the purpose of physiognomizing will be stated in the selection of signs. [section 1] The selection of signs as applied to human beings is taken up as follows. Those whose feet are well-formed and large, well-articulated and sinewy, are vigorous in soul; this is referred to the male sex. Those who have feet that are small, narrow, and unarticulated, more pleasant to look at than sturdy, are soft in soul; this is referred to the female sex. [section 2] Those whose toes are curved are shameless, as are those whose nails are curved; this is referred to the birds with hooked talons. Those whose toes are pressed close together are timid; this is referred to the narrow-footed quails among marsh birds. [section 3] Those whose ankles are sinewy and well-articulated are strong in soul; this is referred to the male sex. Those whose ankles are fleshy and unarticulated are soft in soul; this is referred to the female sex.
20| [section 4] Those who have shins that are well-jointed, sinewy, and strong are strong in soul; this is referred to the male. Those who have shins that are thin and sinewy are lustful; this is referred to birds. Those who have shins extremely full of flesh, as if on the verge of bursting, are disgusting and shameless; this is referred to fitness of look. [section 5] Those who are knock-kneed are effeminate; this is referred to fitness of look. Those who have thighs that are bony and sinewy are strong; this is referred to the male. Those who have thighs that are bony and full of flesh are soft; this is referred to the female. [section 6] Those who have a sharp, bony rump are strong; those who have a fleshy, fat one are soft; and those who have little flesh, as if wiped away, are ill-natured; this is referred to monkeys. [section 7] Those who are narrow-waisted are fond of hunting; this is referred to lions and dogs. And one could observe that among dogs too, the ones fondest of hunting are the narrow-waisted ones. Those whose belly is lean are strong; this is referred to the male. [section 8] Those who are not lean-bellied are soft; this is referred to fitness of look. Those whose back is of good size and strong are strong in soul; this is referred to the male. Those who have a narrow and weak back are soft; this is referred to the female.
21| [section 9] Those who are well-ribbed are strong in soul; this is referred to the male. Those who are narrow in the ribs are soft in soul; this is referred to the female. Those who are swollen out from the ribs, as if puffed up, are talkative and foolish talkers; this is referred to oxen or to frogs. [section 10] Those whose distance from the navel to the top of the chest is greater than their distance from the top of the chest to the neck are gluttonous and dull in perception — gluttonous because they have a large vessel in which to receive food, and dull in perception because the organs of perception occupy a narrower place, joined as it is to the part that receives food, so that the perceptions are weighed down by the filling or emptying of the stomach. [section 11] Those who have a chest that is large and well-articulated are strong in soul; this is referred to the male. [section 12] Those who have an upper back that is large, well-fleshed, and well-jointed are strong in soul; this is referred to the male. Those whose upper back is weak, fleshless, and unjointed are soft in soul; this is referred to the female. Those whose upper back is extremely hunched, with the shoulders drawn together toward the chest, are ill-natured; this is referred to fitness of look, because the parts that ought to be visible in front are hidden.
22| [section 13] Those who have a sway-backed upper back are empty-headed and foolish; this is referred to horses. But since it should be neither extremely hunched nor hollow, one must seek the mean for what is well-formed by nature. [section 14] Those whose shoulder-tops and shoulders are well-jointed are strong in soul; this is referred to the male. Those whose shoulders are weak and unjointed are soft in soul; this is referred to the female. I say the same things as were said about the feet and thighs. [section 15] Those whose shoulders move freely are free in soul; this is referred to from the appearance itself, because generosity of spirit suits the form as it appears. Those whose shoulders move stiffly, drawn together, are illiberal; this is referred to fitness of look. [section 16] Those whose collarbones move freely are perceptive; for when the parts around the collarbones move freely, they readily receive the motion of the perceptions. Those whose collarbones are constricted are dull in perception; for when the parts around the collarbones move stiffly, they are unable to admit the motion of the perceptions. Those who have a thick neck are strong in soul; [section 17] this is referred to the male. Those with a thin neck are weak; this is referred to the female. Those whose neck is thick and full are spirited; this is referred to spirited bulls. Those whose neck is of good size but not overly thick are great-souled; this is referred to lions. Those whose neck is thin and long are cowardly; this is referred to deer. Those whose neck is overly short are treacherous; this is referred to wolves.
23| [section 18] Those whose lips are thin, and slack at the very corners where they join, so that the part of the upper lip near the corners overlaps the lower, are great-souled; this is referred to lions. One could observe this also in large and vigorous dogs. [section 19] Those whose lips are thin and hard, raised at the canine teeth, being disposed this way are well-bred; this is referred to swine. Those who have thick lips, with the upper hanging down over the lower, are foolish; this is referred to donkeys and monkeys. Those whose upper lip and gums protrude are given to abuse; this is referred to dogs. [section 20] Those who have a thick tip of the nose are lazy; this is referred to oxen. Those who have a nose thick from the tip on are dull in perception; this is referred to swine. Those who have a sharp tip of the nose are slow to anger; this is referred to dogs. Those who have a nose rounded at the tip, but blunt, are great-souled; this is referred to lions. [section 21] Those who have a thin tip of the nose are bird-like. Those whose nose is hooked, curving right from the forehead, are shameless; this is referred to crows. Those who have an aquiline nose, articulated from the forehead, are great-souled; this is referred to eagles.
24| [section 22] Those who have a concave nose, rounded in front of the forehead, with the roundness rising upward, are lustful; this is referred to roosters. Those who have a snub nose are lustful; this is referred to deer. Those whose nostrils are wide open are prone to anger; this is referred to the affection that occurs in anger itself. [section 23] Those who have a fleshy face are lazy; this is referred to oxen. Those who have thin faces are diligent, while those with fleshy ones are cowardly; this is referred to donkeys and deer. Those who have small faces are small-souled; this is referred to the cat and the monkey. Those whose faces are large are sluggish; this is referred to donkeys and oxen. [section 24] But since it should be neither small nor large, the middle state between these would be the fitting one. Those whose face appears petty-looking are illiberal; this is referred to fitness of look. [section 25] Those from whose eyes something like little pouches hang down are heavy drinkers; this is referred to the affection itself, for in those who have fallen heavily into drink there stand before the eyes things like little pouches. In those who have risen from sleep, the same marks hang over the eyes, and such people are fond of sleep; this is referred to the affection, because in those risen from sleep something hangs down over the eyes. [section 26] Those who have small eyes are small-souled; this is referred to fitness of look and to the monkey. Those who are large-eyed are sluggish; this is referred to oxen. The one who is well formed by nature, then, should have eyes neither small nor large. Those who have deep-set eyes are malicious; this is referred to the monkey. Those who are bug-eyed are foolish; this is referred to fitness of look and to donkeys.
25| [section 27] Since one should be neither bulging-eyed nor hollow-eyed, the middle state prevails. Those whose eyes are slightly hollow are great-souled; this is referred to lions. Those whose eyes are more hollow than this are gentle; this is referred to oxen. [section 28] Those who have a small forehead are unintelligent; this is referred to pigs. Those who have an excessively large one are sluggish; this is referred to oxen. Those who have a rounded one are dull of perception; this is referred to donkeys. Those who have a longer flat one are dull of perception; this is referred to dogs. [section 29] Those who have a square forehead in due proportion are great-souled; this is referred to lions. Those who have a clouded one are self-willed; this is referred to the bull and the lion. Those who have a fixed, staring one are flatterers; this is referred to the affection that arises — one might observe this in dogs, since dogs, whenever they fawn, have a smooth forehead. [section 30] Since, then, the clouded state indicates self-will and the smooth one indicates flattery, the state between the two would fit well. Those who have a sullen forehead are hard to please; this is referred to the affection, since those who are distressed are sullen. Those who look downcast are given to lamenting; this is referred to the affection, since those who lament look downcast. [section 31]
26| Those who have a large head are keen of perception; this is referred to dogs. Those who have a small one are dull of perception; this is referred to donkeys. Those who are pointed-headed are shameless; this is referred to the hook-taloned birds. Those who have small ears are apelike, and those who have large ones are asslike; one might also observe that the best of dogs have ears of moderate size. [section 32] Those who are excessively dark-skinned are cowardly; this is referred to Egyptians and Ethiopians. Those who are excessively fair-skinned are also cowardly; this is referred to women. The complexion that contributes to courage must be the mean between these. Those who are tawny-haired are stout of heart; this is referred to lions. Those who are excessively red-haired are thoroughly cunning; this is referred to foxes. [section 33] Those who are sallow and disturbed in complexion are cowardly; this is referred to the affection that arises from fear. Those who are honey-pale are chilled; and cold things are hard to move, and since the parts of their body are hard to move, they would be slow. Those whose complexion is ruddy are quick, because everything in the body that is heated by motion turns red. [section 34] Those whose complexion is flame-colored are prone to madness, because the parts of the body when violently heated take on a flame-like color, and those heated to the extreme would be prone to madness. Those whose complexion about the chest is inflamed are quick to anger; this is referred to the affection, for in those who are angered the region about the chest becomes inflamed.
27| [section 35] Those in whom the veins about the neck and temples are stretched taut are quick to anger; this is referred to the affection, since this happens to those who are angered. Those whose face flushes are prone to shame; this is referred to the affection, since the face flushes in those who feel shame. [section 36] Those whose cheeks flush are given to drink; this is referred to the affection, since the cheeks flush in those who are drunk. Those whose eyes flush are beside themselves with anger; this is referred to the affection, since those who are driven out of themselves by anger have flushed eyes. [section 37] Those whose eyes are excessively dark are cowardly, for the excessively dark color has appeared to signify cowardice. Those whose eyes are not excessively dark but incline toward the tawny color are stout of heart. Those whose eyes are grey-blue or pale are cowardly, for the pale color has appeared to signify cowardice. Those whose eyes are not grey-blue but bright are stout of heart; this is referred to the lion and the eagle. [section 38] Those whose eyes are wine-colored are lustful; this is referred to goats. Those whose eyes are fiery are shameless; this is referred to dogs. Those who are pale-eyed and have disturbed eyes are cowardly; this is referred to the affection, since those who become afraid turn sallow with an uneven complexion. Those who have glistening eyes are lecherous; this is referred to cocks and ravens.
28| [section 39] Those who have hairy legs are lecherous; this is referred to goats. Those who are excessively hairy about the chest and belly never persist in the same pursuits; this is referred to birds, because they have the chest and belly covered with the most hair. Those who have an excessively bare chest are shameless; this is referred to women. Since, then, one should be neither excessively hairy nor bare, the middle state is best. [section 40] Those who have hairy shoulders never persist in the same pursuits; this is referred to birds. Those who have an excessively hairy back are shameless; this is referred to wild beasts. Those who have a hairy nape behind the neck are free and generous; this is referred to lions. Those who are bearded at the tip of the chin are stout of heart; this is referred to dogs. [section 41] Those whose eyebrows meet are hard to please; this is referred to the resemblance of the affection. Those whose eyebrows are drawn down toward the nose but drawn up toward the temple are simple-minded; this is referred to pigs. Those who have bristling hair on the head are cowardly; this is referred to the affection, since those who become terrified also bristle. [section 42] Those who have hair that is extremely curly are cowardly; this is referred to Ethiopians. Since, then, both bristling hair and extremely curly hair indicate cowardice, hair with only a slight curl would tend toward stoutness of heart; this too is referred to the lion.
29| [section 43] Those whose hair, at the part of the forehead near the top of the head, sweeps back are free and generous; this is referred to lions. Those who have hair growing forward on the forehead down toward the nose are illiberal; this is referred to fittingness of appearance, because what shows itself is slavish. [section 44] A long-strider who is also a slow-strider would be sluggish in undertaking but capable of completing, since to stride long is effective, while to stride slowly is dilatory. A short-strider who is also a slow-strider is sluggish in undertaking and not capable of completing, since to stride short and slowly is not effective. A long-strider who is also a quick-strider is not quick to undertake but is capable of completing, since speed is effective for completion, while length of stride by itself is not effective for undertaking. [section 45] A short-strider who is also a quick-strider is quick to undertake but not capable of completing. The same considerations apply to the carriage of the hand, forearm, and upper arm. Those who sway their shoulders while holding them straight and extended are loose-jointed like weasels at the elbow; this is referred to horses. [section 46] Those who sway their shoulders while stooped are high-minded; this is referred to lions. Those who walk with their feet turned outward and with feminine legs are referred to women. Those who bend and rub their bodies about are flatterers; this is referred to the affection. [section 47] Those who lean to the right in walking are effeminate; this is referred to fittingness of appearance. Those who have quick-moving eyes are sharp and rapacious; this is referred to hawks. Those who blink are cowardly, because it is in the eyes that people first show a turn to flight.
30| [section 48] Those who ogle, and those in whom one eyelid has come down over the eyes while the gaze stands fixed in the middle, and those who draw their gaze up under the upper eyelids while looking languidly, and those whose eyelids droop, and in general all who look languid and melting — these are all referred to fittingness of appearance and to women. [section 49] Those who move their eyes only after a long interval, having a whitish film over the eye, as though the eyes were fixed in place, are thoughtful; for whenever the soul becomes intently occupied with some thought, the gaze too comes to a stand. [section 50] Those who speak loudly in a deep tone are insolent; this is referred to donkeys. Those who speak beginning from a deep note and ending on a high one are despondent and given to lamenting; this is referred to oxen and to what is fitting to that voice. Those who converse in a high, soft, broken voice are effeminate; this is referred to women and to fittingness of appearance. [section 51] Those who speak loudly in a deep tone that is not twisted are referred to robust dogs and to fittingness of appearance. Those who speak in a soft, slack voice are gentle; this is referred to sheep. Those who speak in a high, screeching voice are lustful; this is referred to goats. [section 52]
31| The very small are excessively quick-witted; for since the flow of the blood occupies a small space, the motions arrive very quickly at the seat of thought. But the very large are slow; for since the flow of the blood occupies a large space, the motions arrive slowly at the seat of thought. [section 53] Those among the small who have dry flesh, or also colors that arise in bodies through heat, accomplish nothing; for since the flow is in a small space and swift because of its fiery character, thinking never stays fixed on the same object, but shifts from one thing to another, before the dominant impulse can run its course. [section 54] Those among the large who have moist flesh, or also colors that arise through cold, accomplish nothing; for since the flow is in a large space and slow because of the cold, it does not manage to complete its arrival at the seat of thought. [section 55] Those among the small who have moist flesh and colors due to cold become capable of accomplishment; for since the motion is in a small space, the sluggishness of the mixture supplies the proportion that lets it first accomplish its object. [section 56] Those among the large who have dry flesh and colors due to heat become capable of accomplishment and perceptive; for the heat corrects the excess of their size in flesh and color, so that it becomes proportionate for accomplishing.
32| [section 57] It has been said, then, that bodies exceeding in size, or falling short through smallness, It has been stated, then, in what circumstances bodies that exceed in size or fall short through smallness are effective, and in what circumstances they are ineffective.. But the nature midway between these is strongest with respect to the senses and most capable of accomplishing whatever it applies itself to; for since the motions do not travel far, they easily arrive at the intellect, and they do not pass beyond it by only a little. [section 58] So the person most complete for accomplishing whatever he sets before himself, and So the person who is going to be most complete at accomplishing whatever he sets before himself, and at perceiving, must be moderate in size., must be moderate in size. Those of disproportionate size are unscrupulous; this trait is referred back to passivity and to the female. For if the disproportionate are unscrupulous, the proportionate would be just and courageous. [section 59] The reference of proportion should be made to the tractability and good natural endowment of bodies, not to the appearance of the male, as was distinguished at the start. And it is proper to refer all the signs mentioned above to fittingness with respect to both male and female; for these have been divided by the most complete division, and it has been shown that the male is more just than the female, more courageous, and, to put it generally, better. [section 60]
33| In the whole selection of signs, some signs indicate the underlying subject more clearly than others. Clearer are those that occur in the most decisive places. The most decisive place is that around the eyes, the forehead, the head, and the face; second is that around the chest and shoulders; then that around the legs and feet; least of all is that around the belly. In general, these places furnish the clearest signs, in which the greatest fittingness of intelligence shows itself.