Natural History — Book III

Pliny the Younger & Pliny the Elder · a new plain-English translation from the Latin

1| So much for the position and the marvels of the earth, of the waters and of the stars, and for the plan and the measurement of the universe. Now for its parts, although this too is reckoned an endless task, and one not undertaken lightly without some censure, though in no field is indulgence more justly due, if indeed it is not in the least surprising that one born a man does not know everything human. For that reason I shall follow no single authority, but whichever I judge most truthful on each part, since it has been common to almost all of them that each described most carefully the regions in which he himself was writing.

2| Therefore I shall neither blame nor refute anyone. The bare names of places will be set down, with all the brevity allowed, their renown and its causes being deferred to their proper sections; for now the discussion concerns the whole. So I should like it to be taken as if the names were being pronounced stripped of their fame, as they were at the beginning, before any deeds were done, and as if there were in them a nomenclature indeed, but a nomenclature of the world and of the nature of things.

3| The entire circuit of the lands falls into three divisions: Europe, Asia and Africa. The starting point is in the west, at the strait of Gades, where the Atlantic ocean bursts in and spreads out into the inner seas. For one entering from here, Africa is on the right, Europe on the left, and Asia between them; the boundaries are the rivers Tanais and Nile. The mouth of the ocean that we have mentioned extends 15,000 paces in length and 5 in breadth, from Mellaria, a village in Spain, to the White Promontory in Africa, on the authority of Turranius Gracilis, who was born nearby.

4| Livy and Cornelius Nepos have recorded its breadth as less than 7,000 paces, and where it is widest, 10: through so modest a mouth so immense an expanse of waters opens out. Nor does great depth lessen the wonder, for frequent ribbons of whitish shallows frighten keels, and for this reason many have called the place the threshold of the inner sea. At the nearest point of the strait, mountains set on either side hem in the barrier, Abila in Africa and Calpe in Europe, the goals of the labors of Hercules. For this reason the natives call them the pillars of that god, and believe that when they were dug through they let in the seas that had been shut out before, and changed the face of nature.

5| First, then, Europe, the nurse of the people that conquered all nations, and by far the most beautiful of lands, which most authors have rightly reckoned not as a third part but as an equal one, the whole world being divided into two parts from the river Tanais to the strait of Gades. The ocean, pouring the Atlantic sea in through the gap we have described, and with greedy advance drowning whatever lands dreaded its coming, licks even those that resist it along the winding bends of their shores. It hollows out Europe most of all with frequent recesses, but chiefly into four principal gulfs, the first of which curves in an immense sweep from Calpe, the outermost mountain of Spain, as was said, to Locri and the promontory of Bruttium.

6| On this gulf the first land is Spain, the part called Further Spain, which is also Baetica; then, from the boundary at Murgi, Nearer Spain, which is also Tarraconensis, up to the ridges of the Pyrenees. Further Spain is divided lengthwise into two provinces, since Lusitania stretches along the northern side of Baetica, separated from it by the river Anas. This river rises in the territory of Laminium in Nearer Spain, and now spreading out into marshes, now drawing itself back into narrows, or hiding itself wholly in underground channels and delighting in being born again and again, it pours out into the Atlantic ocean. Tarraconensis, attached to the Pyrenees and running down along their whole side, and at the same time spreading crosswise from the Iberian sea across to the Gallic ocean, is divided from Baetica and Lusitania by Mount Solorius and by the ranges of the Oretani, the Carpetani and the Astures.

7| Baetica, named after the river that cuts through its middle, surpasses all the provinces in rich cultivation and in a certain fertile and peculiar brilliance. It has 4 judicial districts, those of Gades, Corduba, Astigi and Hispalis. Its towns number 175 in all, and among them are 9 colonies, 10 municipalities of Roman citizens, 27 granted Latin rights long ago, 6 free towns, 3 bound by treaty, and 120 paying tribute. Of these, the ones worth mentioning, or easy to pronounce in Latin, are: from the river Anas, along the coast of the ocean, the town of Ossonoba, surnamed Aestuaria, between the confluent rivers Luxia and Urium; the Hareni mountains; the river Baetis; the Curense shore with its curving bay, opposite which lies Gades, to be described among the islands; the promontory of Juno; the port of Baesippo; the town of Baelo; Mellaria; the strait from the Atlantic sea; Carteia, called Tartesos by the Greeks; and Mount Calpe.

8| Then, on the inner coast, the town of Barbesula with its river; likewise Salduba; the town of Suel; Malaca with its river, a town of the federated allies; then Maenuba with its river; Sexi, surnamed Firmum Iulium; Sel; Abdara; Murgi, the end of Baetica. Marcus Agrippa thought that this whole coast was of Punic origin; but from the Anas onward, the coast facing the Atlantic ocean belongs to the Bastuli and the Turduli. Marcus Varro records that the Iberians, the Persians, the Phoenicians, the Celts and the Carthaginians came into the whole of Spain; for the sport (lusus) of Father Liber, or the frenzy (lyssa) of those who revelled with him, gave Lusitania its name, and Pan was set over all of it as governor. But what is told of Hercules and Pyrene, or of Saturn, I consider fabulous above all else. The Baetis, rising in the province of Tarraconensis, not, as some

9| have said, at the town of Mentesa, but in the Tugiensian forest, near which is the river Tader that waters the Carthaginian territory, turns away at Ilorci from the pyre of Scipio, and bending westward makes for the Atlantic ocean, adopting the province as its own. It is modest at first, but takes in many rivers, from which it steals both their fame and their waters. Entering Baetica first from Ossigitania, charming in its pleasant channel, it is lined to right and left with frequent towns.

10| The most celebrated towns between this river and the shore of the ocean, inland, are: Segida, which is surnamed Augurina; Ulia, which is Fidentia; Urgao, which is Alba; Ebora, which is Cerialis; Iliberri, which is Florentini; Ilipula, which is Laus; Artigi, which is Iulienses; Vesci, which is Faventia; Singili, Ategua, Arialdunum, Agla Minor, Baebro, Castra Vinaria, Cisimbrium, Hippo Nova, Ilurco, Osca, Oscua, Sucaelo, Unditanum, Tucci Vetus, all in Bastetania, which slopes toward the sea. The jurisdiction of Corduba has, around the river itself, Ossigi, which is surnamed Latonium; Iliturgi, which is Forum Iulium; Ipra; Isturgi, which is Triumphales; Ucia; and, 14,000 paces distant inland, Obulco, which is called Pontificense; then Ripa; Epora of the federated; Sacili of the Martiales; Onuba; and on the right bank Corduba, a colony surnamed Patricia; then, where the Baetis first becomes navigable, the towns Carbula and Detumo, and the river Singilis, falling into the Baetis on the same side.

11| The towns of the jurisdiction of Hispalis are: Celti, Axati, Arua, Canama, Naeva, Ilipa, surnamed Ilpa, Italica; and on the left bank Hispal, a colony surnamed Romulensis; opposite, the town Osset, which is surnamed Iulia Constantia; Lucurgentum, which is the Genius of Julius; Orippo, Caura, Siarum, and the river Maenuba, itself too flowing into the Baetis from the right side. But among the estuaries of the Baetis are the towns Nabrissa, surnamed Veneria, and Colobana; the colonies Hasta, which is called Regia, and, inland, Asido, which is Caesarina.

12| The river Singilis, breaking into the Baetis in the order stated, washes the colony of Astigi, surnamed Augusta Firma, from which point it is navigable. The remaining colonies of this jurisdiction, exempt from tribute, are: Tucci, which is surnamed Augusta Gemella; Ituci, which is Virtus Iulia; Ucubi, which is Claritas Iulia; Urso, which is Genetiva of the Urbani; among these was Munda, seized with the younger Pompey. The free towns are Astigi Vetus and Ostippo; the tributary ones are Callet, Callicula, Castra Gemina, Ilipula Minor, Marruca, Sacrana, Obulcula, Oningi, Sabora, Ventippo. Not far from the river Maenuba, itself also navigable, dwell the Olontigi, Laelia and Lastigi.

13| The region, however, that extends from the Baetis to the river Anas, apart from what has been mentioned, is called Baeturia, divided into two parts and as many peoples: the Celtici, who border on Lusitania, of the jurisdiction of Hispalis; the Turduli, who border on Lusitania and the Tarraconensis, who go to Corduba for justice. That the Celtici came from the Celtiberi out of Lusitania is plain from their rites, their language, and the titles of their towns, which are distinguished in Baetica by their surnames:

14| to Seria is added Fama Iulia; to Nertobriga, Concordia Iulia; to Segida, Restituta Iulia; Contributa Iulia to Ugultunia, with which Curiga is now joined; Constantia Iulia to Lacimurga; Fortunales to the Steresi and Aeneanici to the Callenses. Besides these, in the Celtic country: Acinippo, Arunda, Arunci, Turobriga, Lastigi, Salpesa, Saepone, Serippo. The other Baeturia, which we have said belongs to the Turduli and the jurisdiction of Corduba, has towns of some note: Arsa, Mellaria, Mirobriga Regina, Sosintigi, Sisapo.

15| Of the jurisdiction of Gades, among Roman citizens: Regina; among Latins: Laepia Regia, Carisa, surnamed Aurelia, Urgia, called Castrum Iulium, and likewise Caesar's Salutariensis; tributary: Besaro, Belippo, Barbesula, Blacippo, Baesippo, Callet, Cappa with Oleaster, Iptuci, Ibrona, Lascuta, Saguntia, Saudo, Usaepo.

16| Marcus Agrippa gave its whole length as 475,000 paces and its breadth as 258,000, but when its boundaries extended as far as Carthage: a cause that quite often produces great errors in computing measurement, the scale of the provinces having been changed in one place and that of the routes in another, and paces having been increased or diminished. In so long an age the seas have encroached, elsewhere the shores have advanced, and the bends of rivers have twisted or straightened. Besides, different people have a different starting point of measurement, and different routes. So it happens that no two agree.

17| The length of Baetica now, from the end of the town of Castulo to Gades, is 250,000 paces, and from the maritime coast of Murgi 25 paces more; the breadth from Carteia to the Anas, along the coast, is 234,000 paces. Who could believe that Agrippa, with so great a man's diligence and, apart from this, his care in this work, when he was going to set the world before the world's gaze, made a mistake, and with him the deified Augustus? For he completed the portico containing it, begun by his sister from the plan and commentaries of Marcus Agrippa.

18| The old form of Nearer Spain, as of several provinces, has been considerably changed, inasmuch as Pompey the Great, on his trophies which he set up in the Pyrenees, attested that he had brought 866 towns, stretching from the Alps to the boundaries of Further Spain, under his sway. Now the whole province is divided into 7 jurisdictions: the Carthaginensis, Tarraconensis, Caesaraugustanus, Cluniensis, that of the Astures, the Lucensis, and that of the Bracari. There are in addition islands; setting aside mention of these, the province itself contains, besides those attached to others, 293 communities, 179 towns, among them 12 colonies, 13 towns of Roman citizens, 18 of the old Latins, one of the federated, and 135 tributary.

19| First on the coast are the Bastuli; after them, in the sequence in which they will be listed, receding inland, the Mentesani, the Oretani, and on the Tagus the Carpetani; next to them the Vaccaei, the Vettones and the Celtiberian Arevaci. The towns nearest the coast are Urci and Baria, assigned to Baetica; the region Bastitania, then Contestania; Carthago Nova, a colony, from whose promontory, called that of Saturn, the crossing to Caesarea, a city of Mauretania, is 197,000 paces. The rest on the coast: the river Tader; the exempt colony of Ilici, whence the Ilicitan gulf.

20| To this are attached the Icositani. Then, of the Latins, Lucentum; Dianium, tributary; the river Sucro, and a town once, the end of Contestania. The region Edetania, with a pleasant lake stretching in front of it, receding toward the Celtiberi. Valentia, a colony, 3,000 paces from the sea; the river Turium; and the same distance from the sea Saguntum, of Roman citizens, a town noted for its good faith; the river Udiva.

21| The region of the Ilergaones; the river Hiberus, rich in navigable trade, rising among the Cantabri, not far from the town Iuliobriga, flowing for 450,000 paces, and able to carry ships for 260 from the town of Vareia, on account of which the Greeks called the whole of Spain Hiberia. The region of Cessetania; the river Subi; the colony Tarraco, the work of the Scipios, as Carthage was of the Punic people. The region of the Ilergetes; the town Subur; the river Rubricatus, from which the Laeetani and the Indigetes.

22| After them, receding inland in the sequence in which they will be named, at the foot of the Pyrenees the Ausetani [Fitani], the Iacetani, and through the Pyrenees the Ceretani, then the Vascones. On the coast, the colony Barcino, surnamed Faventia; the towns of Roman citizens Baetulo and Iluro; the river Arnum; Blandae; the river Alba; Emporiae, a double town of old inhabitants and of Greeks, who were an offshoot of the Phocaeans; the river Ticer. From it, Pyrenaean Venus, on the other side of the promontory, 40,000.

23| Now the notable places will be given by jurisdictions, besides those mentioned above. At Tarraco 42 peoples bring their cases, of whom the most celebrated are, of Roman citizens, the Dertosani and Bisgargitani; of Latins, the Ausetani, the Ceretani who are surnamed Iuliani and those called Augustani, the Edetani, Gerundenses, Iessonienses, and the Teari who are called Iulienses; of the tributary, the Aquicaldenses, Aesonenses and Baeculonenses.

24| Caesaraugusta, an exempt colony, washed by the river Hiberus, where the town was formerly called Salduba, in the region of Edetania, receives 55 peoples: of these, of Roman citizens, the Bilbilitani, the Celsenses from the colony, the Calagurritani who are surnamed Nasici, the Ilerdenses of the people of the Surdaones, beside whom flows the river Sicoris, the Oscenses of the region of Suessetania, and the Turiassonenses; of the old Latins, the Cascantenses, Ergavicenses, Graccurritani, Leonicenses and Osicerdenses; of the federated, the Tarracenses; of the tributary, the Arcobrigenses, Andelonenses, Aracelitani, Bursaonenses, the Calagurritani who are surnamed Fibularenses, the Conplutenses, Carenses, Cincienses, Cortonenses, Damanitani, Ispallenses, Ilursenses, Iluberitani, Iacetani, Libienses, Pompelonenses and Segienses.

25| To Carthage come 65 peoples, apart from the inhabitants of the islands: from the colony Accitana Gemellense, from Libisosana, surnamed Foroaugustana, to which two the right of Italy was given, from the colony Salariensis; townsmen of old Latin right: the Castulonenses, who are called Caesarii Iuvenales, the Saetabitani who are Augustani, the Valerienses. Of the tributary the most celebrated are the Alabanenses, Bastitani, Consaburrenses, Dianenses, Egelestani, Ilorcitani, Laminitani, the Mentesani who are also Oretani, the Mentesani who are also Bastuli, the Oretani who are also called Germani, and the capital of Celtiberia, the Segobrigenses, and of Carpetania the Toletani, situated on the river Tagus, then the Viatienses and the Virgilienses.

26| To the jurisdiction of Clunia the Varduli bring 13 peoples, of whom it is enough to name only the Alabanenses; the Turmogidi, 4, among whom the Segisamonenses and the Segisamaiulienses. Into the same jurisdiction the Carietes and Vennenses go with 5 communities, among which are the Velienses. To the same the Pelendones of the Celtiberi, with 4 peoples, of whom the Numantini were famous, as were, among the 17 communities of the Vaccaei, the Intercatienses, Palantini, Lacobrigenses and Caucenses.

27| For among the 9 peoples of the Cantabri only Iuliobriga is worth mentioning, and among the 10 communities of the Autrigones Tritium and Virovesca. The Arevaci were named for the river Areva. Of these there are 6 towns: Secontia and Uxama, names which are often used in other places, besides Segovia as well as Nova Augusta, Termes and Clunia herself, the limit of Celtiberia. The rest slope toward the ocean: the Varduli of those already named, and the Cantabri.

28| Joined to these are the 22 peoples of the Astures, divided into Augustani and Transmontani, with the splendid city Asturica. Among them are the Gigurri, the Paesici, the Lancienses and the Zoelae. The whole number of the multitude comes to 240 free heads. The jurisdiction of Lucus has sixteen peoples, apart from the Celtici and Lemavi, who are obscure and of barbarous names, but about 166,000 free heads. In the same way the 24 communities of the Bracari, 285,000 heads, of whom, besides the Bracari themselves, the Bibali, Coelerni, Callaeci, Equaesi, Limici and Querquerni may be named without disdain.

29| The length of Nearer Spain, from the Pyrenees to the end of Castulo, is D̅C̅VII paces, and a little more along the coast; the breadth from Tarraco to the shore at Oiarso is 307,000, from the roots of the Pyrenees, where it is wedged together in a narrow strip between the two seas; then gradually widening, where it touches Further Spain, it adds as much and more to its breadth.

30| Almost all Spain teems with mines of lead, iron, bronze, silver and gold; Nearer Spain also with the specular stone, Baetica also with minium. There are also quarries of marble. To the whole of Spain the Emperor Vespasian Augustus granted the Latin right, which had been tossed about by the storms of the commonwealth. The Pyrenees mountains divide the Spains and the Gauls, with their promontories thrust out into two different seas.

31| The part of the Gauls which is washed by the inner sea is called the province Narbonensis, formerly called Bracata, parted from Italy by the Varus river and the ridges of the Alps, most wholesome to the Roman empire, and from the rest of Gaul on the northern side by the mountains Cebenna and the Jura; second to no province in the cultivation of its fields, the standing of its men and their manners, and the greatness of its wealth, and, in brief, more truly Italy than a province.

32| On the coast is the region of the Sordones, and inland that of the Consuarani; the rivers Tecum and Vernodubrum; the towns Illiberis, a slight trace of what was once a great city, Ruscino of the Latins; the river Atax, flowing from the Pyrenees through the Rubrensis lake; Narbo Martius, a colony of the Decumani, 12,000 paces distant from the sea; the rivers Araris and Liria. For the rest the towns are few, because of the lagoons lying in front:

33| Agatha, once of the Massilians, and the region of the Volcae Tectosages, and the place where Rhoda of the Rhodians was, whence the river Rhone, by far the most fertile of the Gauls, takes its name, rushing out from the Alps, passing through Lake Lemannus, carrying down the sluggish Arar and the torrents Isara and Druantia, no less violent than itself. Its two small mouths are called Libica, of which one is Hispaniense, the other Metapinum; the third, which is also the widest, is Massalioticum. There are authorities that a town Heraclea also existed at the mouth of the Rhone.

34| Beyond are the canals from the Rhone, distinguished by the work and name of Gaius Marius; the lagoon Mastromela; the town Maritima of the Avatici; above it the Stony Plains, a memorial of the battles of Hercules; the region of the Anatilii, and inland that of the Dexivates and Cavares; again, from the sea, that of the Tricorii, and inland that of the Tritolli, the Vocontii and the Segovellauni, and then the Allobroges. On the coast Massilia, of the Phocaean Greeks, federated; the promontory Zao; the harbour Citharista; the region of the Camactulici; then the Suelteri, and above them the Verucini.

35| On the coast, moreover, Athenopolis of the Massilians; Forum Iulii, a colony of the Octavani, called Pacensis and Classica; a river by the name of Argenteus; the region of the Oxubii and Ligauni, above whom the Suebri, Quariates and Adunicates. On the coast the Latin town Antipolis; the region of the Deciates; the river Varus, flowing out from the Alpine mountain Caenia.

36| Inland, the colonies: Arelate of the Sextani, Baeterrae of the Septimani, Arausio of the Secundani, in the territory of the Cavares Valentia, Vienna of the Allobroges. Latin towns: Aquae Sextiae of the Salluvii, Avennio of the Cavares, Apta Iulia of the Vulgientes, Alebaece of the Reii Apollinares, Alba of the Helvi, Augusta of the Tricastini, Anatilia, Aerea, Bormani, Comani, Cabellio, Carcasum of the Volcae Tectosages, Cessero, Carbantorate of the Meminii, the Caenicenses, the Cambolectri who are surnamed Atlantici,

37| Forum Voconi, Glanum Libii, the Lutevani who are also Foroneronienses, Nemausum of the Arecomici, Piscinae, the Ruteni, the Samnagenses, the Tolosani of the Tectosages, bordering on Aquitania, the Tasgoduni, Tarusconienses, Umbranici; of the Vocontii, a federated community, the two capitals Vasio and Lucus Augusti, and 19 obscure towns, as there are 24 attached to the people of Nemausus. To the register the Emperor Galba added from the Alpine peoples the Avantici and Bodiontici, whose town is Dinia. Agrippa gives the length of the province Narbonensis as 370,000 paces, and its breadth as 248,000.

38| Italy next, and first of its peoples the Ligures, then Etruria, Umbria, Latium, where are the mouths of the Tiber and Rome, the head of the lands, at an interval of 16 paces from the sea. Afterwards the shore of the Volsci and of Campania, then that of Picenum, Lucania and Bruttium, where Italy runs out farthest to the south into the seas from the almost crescent-shaped ridges of the Alps. From that point the coast of Greece, then the Sallentini, Poeduculi, Apuli, Paeligni, Frentani, Marrucini, Vestini, Sabini, Picentes, Galli, Umbri, Tusci, Veneti, Carni, Iapudes, Histri, Liburni.

39| I am not unaware that I may rightly be thought of ungrateful and sluggish mind if the land which is the nurse of all lands, and their parent too, chosen by the will of the gods to make the very heaven brighter, to gather scattered empires, to soften manners, to draw the discordant and savage tongues of so many peoples together into conversation through the commerce of speech, to give humanity to man, and in brief to become the single fatherland of all nations in the whole world, is spoken of in passing and in haste in this manner.

40| But what shall I do? Such is the nobility of all the places that one might touch upon, such the renown of each thing and each people, that holds me. The city of Rome, even alone in it, [….] and an appearance worthy now of so festive a neck, by what work at last ought it to be told? In what manner the coast of Campania, in itself, and that fortunate and blessed loveliness, so that it is plain that in one place there is a work of nature rejoicing?

41| Then truly all that life-giving and unfailing healthfulness, such a temperate climate of the sky, plains so fertile, hills so sunny, glades so harmless, groves so shady, so bountiful kinds of woods, so many breezes from the mountains, such fertility of grain, vines and olives, fleeces so noble for the flock, necks so rich for bulls, so many lakes, such abundance of rivers and springs pouring over the whole of it, so many seas, harbours, and a lap of lands open on every side to commerce and, as though to help mortals, running eagerly out into the seas itself!

42| I do not mention the talents and customs and men, and the nations overcome by tongue and hand. The Greeks themselves, a race most lavish in their own glory, have given judgment on it, in calling what a small part of it Great Greece! Surely what we did in mentioning the sky must be done in this part too, that we touch on some marks and a few stars. I only ask that readers remember that haste is being made to expound each thing in the whole world.

43| It is therefore most like an oak leaf, much greater in length than in breadth, bending to the left at its tip and ending in the shape of an Amazonian shield, where from its middle extension it is called Cocynthos, putting out two horns through crescent-shaped inlets: Leucopetra on its right side and Lacinium on its left. Its length extends from the Alpine boundary of Praetoria Augusta through the city and Capua, running on to the town of Regium, situated at its shoulder, from which, as it were, the curve of the neck begins, ten hundred thousand and twenty thousand paces, and the measurement would be much greater if taken as far as Lacinium, were it not that such a slant seems to turn aside to the flank.

44| Its breadth varies, being four hundred and ten thousand paces as measured between the Lower and Upper seas and the rivers Varus and Arsia; and at about the middle, around the city of Rome, from the mouth of the river Aternus, flowing into the Adriatic sea, to the mouths of the Tiber, 136,000, and slightly short of that from Castrum Novum on the Adriatic sea, Alsium, to the Tuscan sea; at no place does it exceed 200,000 in breadth. Taken all round, from the Varus to the Arsia, it makes X̅X̅, X̅L̅V̅I̅I̅I̅I̅ paces.

45| It is distant from the surrounding lands, from Histria and Liburnia, in some places a hundred miles, from Epirus and Illyricum fifty, from Africa less than two hundred, as Marcus Varro is the authority, from Sardinia a hundred and twenty miles, from Sicily 1,500, from Corcyra less than 80,000, from Issa 50. It advances through the seas toward the region of the sky in the south, but, if one were to demand this with careful exactness, between the sixth and the first winter hour.

46| Now we shall enumerate its circuit and its cities. In this matter it is necessary to state beforehand that we shall follow the deified Augustus, and the division made by him of the whole of Italy into 11 regions, but in the order that the course of the coasts will give; that the neighbourhoods of the cities cannot in any case be kept in a speech so hurried, and that for the inland part we shall therefore follow his arrangement in alphabetical order, having marked the colonies, which he recorded in that number. Nor is it easy to follow out the sites and origins, when land was given thirty times to the Ligurian Ingauni, to say nothing of the rest.

47| So, from the river Varus: Nicaea, founded by the Massilians; the river Palo; the Alps and the Alpine peoples with many names, but most of all the Capillati; Cemenelum, a town of the community of the Vediantii; the harbour of Hercules Monoecus; the Ligurian coast. The most celebrated of the Ligures beyond the Alps are the Salluvii, Deciates and Oxubii; on this side, the Veneni, Turri, Soti, Bagienni, Statielli, Binbelli, Maielli, Caburriates, Casmonates, Velleiates, and those whose towns we shall name next on the coast.

48| The river Rutuba; the town Album Intimilium; the river Merula; the town Album Ingaunum; the harbour Vada Sabatia; the river Porcifera; the town Genua; the river Fertor; the harbour Delphini; inland Tigulia; Segesta of the Tigulii; the river Macra, the end of Liguria. Behind all the places named above lies the Appennine mountain, the greatest of Italy, stretching in unbroken ridges from the Alps to the Sicilian strait. From its other side to the river Po, the richest of Italy, all places shine with noble towns: Libarna, Dertona, a colony, Iria, Vardacate, Industria, Pollentia, Carrea, which is surnamed Potentia, Forum Fulvii, which is Valentinum, Augusta of the Bagienni, Alba Pompeia, Hasta, Aquae of the Statielli. This region is the ninth by Augustus' division. The coast of Liguria between the rivers Varus and Macra extends 211,000 paces.

50| Joined to it is the seventh region, in which is Etruria, from the river Macra, itself with often changed names. The Pelasgi in ancient times drove the Umbri from it, and the Lydi these, from whose king they were called Tyrrheni, and soon, from their sacrificial rite, Tusci in the speech of the Greeks. The earliest town of Etruria is Luna, noted for its harbour; the colony Luca, receding from the sea, and nearer Pisae, between the rivers Auser and Arnus, sprung from the descendants of Pelops or from the Teutani, a Greek people. The shallows of Volaterra; the river Caecina; Populonium, once of the Etruscans, the only one of them on this shore.

51| From here the rivers Prile, soon Umbro, able to carry ships, and from it the district of Umbria; the harbour Telamo; Cosa of the Volcientes, settled by the Roman people; Graviscae; Castrum Novum; Pyrgi; the river of Caere, and Caere itself inland 7 miles, called Agylla by its Pelasgian founders; Alsium; Fregenae; the river Tiber, 284,000 paces from the Macra; inland the colonies Falisca, sprung from Argos, as Cato is the authority, which is surnamed that of the Etruscans, Lucus Feroniae, Rusellana, Seniensis, Sutrina.

52| For the rest: the Arretini Veteres, Arretini Fidentiores, Arretini Iulienses, the Amitinenses, the Aquenses with the surname Taurini, the Blerani, Cortonenses, Capenates, Clusini Novi, Clusini Veteres, the Florentini, placed along the flowing Arnus, Faesulae, Ferentinum, Fescennia, Hortanum, Herbanum, Nepet, Novem Pagi, the Prefecture Claudia Forum Clodii, Pistorium, Perusia, the Suanenses, the Saturnini, who were formerly called Aurini, the Subertani, Statonienses, Tarquinienses, Tuscanienses, Vetulonienses, Veientani, Vesentini, Volaterrani, the Volcentani with the surname Etrusci, and the Volsinienses. In that same region, the territories of Crustuminum and Caletra keep the names of old towns.

53| The Tiber, formerly called Thybris and earlier Albula, rises from the boundaries of the Arretini, about the middle of the length of the Appennine, thin at first and not navigable except when collected in ponds and let out, as are the Tinia and the Clanis flowing into it, in this manner after a gathering of nine days at a time, if rains do not help. But the Tiber, on account of its rough and broken course, is said not to be passable for any great distance even so, except for logs rather than for rafts. For 150,000 paces, not far from Tifernum and Perusia and Ocriculum, it divides Etruria from the Umbri and Sabines, and soon, on this side of 16,000 paces from the city, the territory of Veii from that of Crustumerium, then the Fidenate and Latin territory from the Vatican.

54| But below the Clanis of the Arretini it is increased by forty-two rivers, chiefly the Nar and the Anio, which is itself navigable and encloses Latium at the back; and it is no less swelled by the waters and so many springs led into the city, and therefore, able to carry ships of whatever size from the Italian seas, the gentlest merchant of the things that are born in the whole world, it is lined by more villas on its banks, almost alone, than other rivers in all lands, and is looked upon by them.

55| And no river is less free to move, enclosed on both sides, yet it does not fight against this, although it is frequent and sudden in its rises, standing nowhere more than in the city itself. Indeed it is understood rather as a prophet and monitor, always scrupulous in its swelling more truly than savage.

56| Ancient Latium was preserved from the Tiber to Circeii, 50 miles in length: so slender were the roots at the beginning of the empire. The colonists often changing, different peoples held it at different times: the Aborigines, Pelasgi, Arcadians, Siculi, Aurunci, Rutuli, and beyond Circeii the Volsci, Osci and Ausones, whence the name of Latium advanced as far as the river Liris. At the beginning is Ostia, a colony led out by a Roman king; the town Laurentum; Jupiter Indiges' grove; the river Numicius; Ardea, established by Danaë, mother of Perseus.

57| Then once Aphrodisium; Antium, a colony; the river and island Astura; the river Nymphaeus; Clostra Romana; Circeii, once an island surrounded by a vast sea, as is believed from Homer, and now a plain. It is a marvel what we can hand down to men's knowledge on this matter. Theophrastus, who first of foreigners wrote with some care about the Romans (for Theopompus, before whom no one made mention, said only that the city had fallen to the Gauls, and Clitarchus, nearest after him, only that an embassy had been sent to Alexander), he

58| already, beyond rumour, gave the measure of the island of the Circeii as 80 stadia, in the volume which he wrote in the magistracy of Nicodorus at Athens, which was the 440th year of our city. Whatever of land, therefore, is attached to the island beyond a circuit of 10 paces came to Italy after that year.

59| Another marvel after Circeii is the Pomptine marsh, which place Mucianus, three times consul, reported to have held 24 cities. Then the river Aufentum, above which the town Tarracina, called Anxur in the language of the Volsci, and where were Amyclae or Amynclae, destroyed by serpents; then the place Spelunca; the lake of Fundi; the harbour Caieta; the town Formiae, called Hormiae, which they thought was the ancient seat of the Laestrygones. Beyond was the town Pirae; there is the colony Minturnae, divided by the river Liris, formerly called Clanis; Sinuessa, the last in the Latium that was added, which some have said was called Sinope.

60| From here begins that fortunate Campania; from this gulf start the vine-bearing hills and the intoxication famed through all lands for its juice, and, as the ancients said, the supreme contest of Father Liber with Ceres. From here stretch the territories of Setia and the Caecuban; to these are joined the Falernian and Calenian; then rise the Massic, the Gauran and the Surrentine mountains. There the Leborine plains spread out, and the harvest is polished into the delicacy of alica. These shores are watered by hot springs, and beyond the rest in the whole sea are noted for conchylium and noble fish. Nowhere is the liquid of the olive more generous, this too a contest of human pleasure. The Osci held it, the Greeks, the Umbri, the Tusci, the Campani.

61| On the coast, the river Savo; the town Volturnum with its river; Liternum; Cumae of the Chalcidians; Misenum; the harbour of Baiae; Bauli; the lakes Lucrinus and Avernus, near which was once the town Cimmerium; then Puteoli, a colony, called Dicaearchea; and after it the Phlegraean plains; the Acherusian marsh, near Cumae;

62| on the shore, however, Neapolis, itself also of the Chalcidians, called Parthenope from the tomb of a Siren; Herculaneum; Pompeii, not far from Mount Vesuvius, which is in sight, with the river Sarnus washing it; the territory of Nuceria, and Nuceria itself 9,000 paces from the sea; Surrentum with the promontory of Minerva, once the seat of the Sirens. The voyage from Circeii extends 80,000 paces less 2,000. This region, from the Tiber, is kept as the first of Italy in the division of Augustus.

63| Inland, the colonies Capua, named from the X̅L̅ plain, Aquinum, Suessa, Venafrum, Sora, Teanum, which bears the surname Sidicinum, and Nola; the towns Abellinum, Aricia, Alba Longa, the Acerrani, Allifani, Atinates, Aletrinates, Anagnini, Atellani, Aefulani, Arpinates, Auximates, Abellani, Alfaterni, and those who are named from the Latin territory, likewise the Hernican, likewise the Labican; Bovillae, Caiatia, Casinum, Calenum, Capitulum Hernicum, the Cereatini who are surnamed Mariani, the Corani, sprung from the Trojan Dardanus, the Cubulterini,

64| the Castrimoenienses, Cingulani, the Cabienses on the Alban mount, the Foropopulienses from Falernum, the Frusinates, Ferentinates, Freginates, the Fabraterni Veteres, Fabraterni Novi, Ficolenses, Fregellani, Forum Appii, the Forentani, Gabini, the Interamnates Sucasini, who are also called Lirenates, the Ilionenses, Lanivini, Norbani, Nomentani, the Praenestini, their city once called Stephane, the Privernates, Setini, Signini, Suessulani, Telesini, the Trebulani surnamed Ballienses, the Trebani, Tusculani, Verulani, Veliterni,

65| the Ulubrenses, the Urbanates, and above them Rome itself, whose other name it is held a sin to speak except in the secret rites, and which Valerius Soranus pronounced, though it had been suppressed by a best and saving fidelity, and soon paid the penalty. It does not seem out of place to insert at this point an example of ancient religious practice, instituted for the sake of this silence above all. For the goddess Angerona, to whom sacrifice is made on the twelfth day before the Kalends of January, has a statue with its mouth bound and sealed.

66| Romulus left the City with three gates, or, if we believe those who give the most, four. Its walls, in the year of the foundation 826, under the Vespasians as emperors and censors, collected in a circuit 13 miles and 200, embracing seven hills. The city itself is divided into 14 regions, and has 265 crossroad shrines of the Lares. Its extent, by a measure running from the milestone set at the head of the Roman Forum to each of the gates, which today are 37 in number (so that the twelve gates are counted once, and 7 of the old ones are passed over, which have ceased to exist), makes in a straight line 20,765 paces.

67| Measured to the farthest of the roofs, together with the praetorian camp, from the same milestone through the streets of all the roads, the measure comes to a little more than 60,000 paces. If anyone should add the height of the roofs, he would surely form an estimate worthy of it, and would admit that the greatness of no city in the whole world could be compared with it. It is closed on the east by the rampart of Tarquin the Proud, among the first in marvellous work; for he made it equal to walls where the approach lay most open on level ground. The rest was fortified by very high walls or by steep mountains, except that roofs spreading out have added many cities.

68| In the first region, moreover, there were in Latium famous towns: Satricum, Pometia, Scaptia, Politorium, Tellena, Tifata, Caenina, Ficana, Crustumeria, Ameriola, Medullum, Corniculum, Saturnia, where Rome now is, Antipolis, which is now the Janiculum, in a part of Rome, Antemnae, Camerium, Collatia, Amitinum,

69| Norba, Sulmo, and with them the Alban peoples who used to receive meat on the Alban mount: the Albani, Aesolani, Accienses, Abolani, Bubetani, Bolani, Cusuetani, Coriolani, Fidenates, Foreti, Hortenses, Latinienses, Longani, Manates, Macrales, Munienses, Numinienses, Olliculani, Octulani, Pedani, Poletaurini, Querquetulani, Sicani, Sisolenses, Tolerienses, Tutienses, Vimitellari, Velienses, Venetulani, Vitellenses.

70| Thus of ancient Latium 53 peoples have perished without a trace. In the Campanian territory Stabiae was a town until the consulship of Gnaeus Pompeius and Lucius Cato, the day before the Kalends of May, on which day Lucius Sulla, as a legate in the Social War, destroyed it; it has now become a country house. Taurania also perished there. The remains of Casilinum are dying. Antias moreover is the authority that the Latin town Apiolae was captured by King Lucius Tarquinius, and that from its spoil he began the Capitol. From Surrentum to the river Silerus, 30 miles, was the Picentine territory, once of the Tusci, noted for the temple of Argive Juno founded by Jason. Inland the town of Salernum, Picentia.

71| From the Silerus begins the third region, the Lucanian and Bruttian territory, and not there either without frequent change of inhabitants. The Pelasgi held it, the Oenotri, the Itali, the Morgetes, the Siculi, mostly peoples of Greece, and lastly the Lucani, sprung from the Samnites under a leader Lucius. The town Paestum, called Posidonia by the Greeks; the Paestan gulf; the town Elea, which is now Velia; the promontory Palinurus, from which, where the gulf recedes, the crossing to the Columna Regia is 100 miles; the nearest river is the Melpes,

72| the town Buxentum, in Greek Pyxus; the river Laus. There was also a town of the same name. From it the Bruttian shore; the town Blanda; the river Baletum; the harbour Parthenius of the Phocenses; the Vibonensian gulf; the place Clampetia; the town Tempsa, called Temese by the Greeks; Terina of the Crotonians, and the huge Terinaean gulf. The town Consentia inland.

73| On the peninsula the river Acheron, from which the townsfolk are called Aceruntini. Hippo, which we now call Vibo Valentia; the harbour of Hercules; the river Metaurus; the town Tauroentum; the harbour of Orestes, and Medma. The town Scyllaeum; the river Crataeis, mother, as they have said, of Scylla. Then the Columna Regia and the Sicilian strait and two opposite promontories, from Italy Caenus, from Sicily Pelorum, at an interval of 12 stadia,

74| from where to Regium 94. Then Sila, a forest of the Appennine; the promontory Leucopetra, 15,000 paces; from it 51,000 to Locri, named from the promontory Zephyrium. They are 303,000 distant from the Silerus. And the first gulf of Europe is closed. In it the seas are named: where it breaks in, the Atlantic, by others the Great; where it enters, Porthmos by the Greeks, by us the Gaditan strait; when it has entered, the Spanish, so far as it washes the Spains, by others the Iberian or the Balearic; then the Gallic before the province Narbonensis;

75| then the Ligurian; from it to the island of Sicily the Tuscan, which of the Greeks some call Notium, others Tyrrhenian, and most of ours the Lower. The part beyond Sicily which lies by the Sallentini Polybius calls the Ausonian; Eratosthenes calls everything that lies between the ocean's mouth and Sardinia the Sardoan, from there to Sicily the Tyrrhenian, from this to Crete the Sicilian, and from that the Cretan.

76| The first of all the islands in these seas are the Pityussae, so called by the Greeks from the pine shrub; now each is called Ebusus, a federated community, a narrow strait flowing between. They extend 46,000, and are 700 stadia from Dianium; and just as many is Dianium by land from Carthago Nova, and as far from the Pityussae out to sea are the two Baliares, and toward Sucro, Colubraria.

77| The Baliares, warlike with the sling, the Greeks called Gymnasiae. The greater is 100 paces in length, and in circuit 475,000. It has the towns of Roman citizens Palma and Pollentia, the Latin Guium and Tucis, and there was a federated one of the Bocchori. From it the smaller is 30,000 distant, in length 40,000, in circuit 150. Its communities are Iamo, Sanisera and Mago.

78| From the greater, 12,000 out to sea, lies Capraria, treacherous with shipwrecks, and opposite the city of Palma, Menaria and Tiquadra and the small island of Hannibal. The soil of Ebusus drives away serpents; that of Colubraria breeds them, and so it is dangerous to all who do not bring in Ebusitan earth; the Greeks called it Ophiussa. Nor does Ebusus produce rabbits, which ravage the harvests of the Baliares.

79| There are about twenty other small ones in a shallow sea; and, on the Gallic coast by the mouth of the Rhone, Metina, then the one called that of the Blasci, and the three Stoechades, so called by the neighbouring Massilians on account of the order in which they lie. Their names are Prote, Mese, which is also called Pomponiana, and the third Hypaea; after these Sturium, Phoenice, Phila, Lero and Lerina opposite Antipolis, in which there is a memory of a town Berco.

80| In the Ligurian sea is Corsica, which the Greeks called Cyrnos, but nearer the Tuscan, stretching from north to south, 150,000 paces long, 50 wide for the greater part, in circuit 325,000. It is 62,000 from the shallows of Volaterra, has 32 communities and the colonies Mariana, led out by Gaius Marius, and Aleria, by the dictator Sulla. On this side is Oglasa; but within, and 60,000 paces from Corsica, Planasia, named from its appearance, level with the sea and therefore deceptive to ships.

81| Larger are Urgo and Capraria, which the Greeks called Aegilion, likewise Igilium and Dianium, which they called Artemisia, both opposite the Cosan shore; and Barpana, Menaria, Columbaria, Venaria; Ilva with its iron mines, circuit 100, 10 from Populonium, called Aethalia by the Greeks. From it Planasia, 28,000. Beyond these, beyond the mouths of the Tiber, in the territory of Antium, Astura; soon Palmaria, Sinonia, opposite Formiae the Pontiae.

82| In the gulf of Puteoli, however, Pandateria; Prochyta, not from Aeneas' nurse, but because it had been poured out from Aenaria; Aenaria, from the station of Aeneas' ships, called Inarime by Homer; Pithecusa, not from a multitude of apes, as some have thought, but from the potteries of jars. Between Pausilypum and Neapolis, Megaris; then, 8 distant from Surrentum, those of the emperor Tiberius,

83| noted for his citadel, Capreae, 11,000 in circuit; Leucothea; and out of sight, touching the African sea, Sardinia, less than 8,000 paces from the farthest parts of Corsica, those straits being still further narrowed by small islands called Cuniculariae, and likewise those of Phinto and Fossae, from which the strait itself is named Taphros.

84| Sardinia, extending on the east 188,000 paces, on the west 175,000, on the south 77,000, on the north 125,000, in circuit 565,000, is 200,000 from Africa at the Caralitan promontory, and from Gades |X̅I̅I̅I̅|.L. It has also, from the Gorditan promontory, two islands which are called those of Hercules; from the Sulcensian, Enosis; from the Caralitan, Ficaria.

85| Some place not far from it also the Leberides and Callode and the one they call Heras lutra. The most celebrated of the peoples in it are the Ilienses, Balari and Corsi; of the 18 towns, the Sulcitani, Valentini, Neapolitani, Bitienses, the Caralitani of Roman citizens, and the Norenses; and one colony, which is called At the Tower of Libiso. Sardinia itself Timaeus called Sandaliotis, from the shape of a sandal, Myrsilus Ichnusa, from its likeness to a footprint. Opposite the Paestan gulf is Leucosia, named from a Siren buried there; opposite Velia, Pontia and Isacia, both under the one name Oenotrides, a proof of Italy having been possessed by the Oenotri; opposite Vibo, small ones which are called Ithacesiae, from the watchtower of Ulysses.

86| But before all in fame is Sicily, called Sicania by Thucydides, Trinacria by many, or Trinacia, from its triangular shape, extending in circuit, as Agrippa is the authority, 618,000 paces; once joined to the Bruttian territory, then torn away when the sea flowed between; the strait is 15,000 in length, and in breadth 1,500 paces near the Columna Regia. From this proof of its splitting apart the Greeks gave the name Rhegium to the town situated on the margin of Italy.

87| In this strait is the rock Scylla, and likewise Charybdis, a whirling sea, both famous for their savagery. Of the triangular island itself, as we have said, the promontory called Pelorum, facing toward Scylla, turns toward Italy; Pachynum toward Greece, the Peloponnese being 440,000 distant from it; Lilybaeum toward Africa, at an interval of 180,000 from the promontory of Mercury and 190,000 from the Caralitan one of Sardinia. The promontories and sides are distant from each other by these spaces: by land route from Pelorum to Pachynum 176,000, from there to Lilybaeum 200,000, from there to Pelorum 242,000. There are 5 colonies and 63,000 cities or communities.

88| From Pelorum, on the coast facing the Ionian sea: the town Messana of Roman citizens, who are called Mamertini; the promontory Drepanum; the colony Tauromenium, formerly Naxos; the river Asines; mount Aetna, wonderful for its nocturnal fires. Its crater extends twenty stadia in circuit; the glowing ash reaches as far as Tauromenium and Catina, and the roar as far as Maroneum and the Gemelli hills.

89| The three rocks of the Cyclopes; the harbour of Ulysses; the colony Catina; the rivers Symaethus and Terias. Inland the Laestrygonian plains. The towns Leontini and Megaris; the river Pantagies; the colony Syracuse with the spring Arethusa, although the springs Temenitis, Archidemia, Magea, Cyane and Milichie are also drunk from in the Syracusan territory; the harbour Naustathmus; the river Elorum; the promontory Pachynum, from which [….] the front of Sicily the river Hyrminum, the town Camarina, the river Gelas, the town Agragas,

90| which our people have called Agrigentum; the colony Thermae; the rivers Achates, Mazaara, Hypsa and Selinuus; the town Lilybaeum, the promontory from it; Drepana; mount Eryx; the towns Panhormum, Soluus, Himera with its river, Cephaloedis, Haluntium, Agathyrnum, the colony Tyndaris, the town Mylae, and, where we began, Pelorias.

91| Inland, however, of Latin status: the Centuripini, Netini and Segestani; the tributary Assorini, Aetnenses, Agyrini, Acestaei, Acrenses, Bidini, Citarini, Drepanitani, Ergetini, Echetlienses, Erycini, Entellini, Egguini, Gelani, Galacteni, Halaesini, Hennenses, Hyblenses, Herbitenses, Herbessenses, Herbulenses, Halicuenses, Hadranitani, Imacarenses, Ichanenses, Iaetenses, Mutustratini, Magellini, Murgentini, Mutycenses, Menaini, Naxi, Noini, Petrini, Paropini, Phintienses, Semelitani, Scherini, Selinunti, Symaethii, Talarenses, Tissienses, Triocalini, Tyracinenses. The Zanclaei of the Messenians are in the Sicilian strait.

92| The islands facing toward Africa: Gaulos; Melita, 87,000 from Camarina, 113,000 from Lilybaeum; Cossyra; Hieronnesos; Caene; Galata; Lopadusa; Aethusa, which others have written Aegusa; Bucinna; and, 75,000 from Soluntum, Osteodes; and opposite the Paropini, Ustica. On this side of Sicily, however, opposite the river Metaurus, about 25,000 paces from Italy, seven called Aeoliae, the same as the Liparaean islands, Hephaestiades by the Greeks, Volcaniae by our people, and Aeoliae because Aeolus reigned there in Trojan times.

93| Lipara, with a town of Roman citizens, named from King Liparus, who succeeded Aeolus, formerly called Milogonis or Meligunis, is 25,000 from Italy; its circuit a little less than 5. Between this and Sicily is another, formerly called Therasia, now Hiera, because it is sacred to Vulcan, a hill in it vomiting forth flames by night.

94| The third is Strongyle, 6,000 paces from Lipara toward the rising of the sun, in which Aeolus reigned; it differs from Lipara only in a clearer flame, and from its smoke the inhabitants are said to predict what winds will blow within three days; whence it was thought that the winds obeyed Aeolus. The fourth is Didyme, which is smaller than Lipara; the fifth is Ericusa and the sixth Phoenicusa, both left to serve as pasture for their nearest neighbours. The last, and the smallest too, Euonymos. So far of the first gulf of Europe.

95| From Locri begins the front of Italy, called Magna Graecia, receding into three gulfs of the Ausonian sea, because the Ausones held it first. It extends 86,000, as Varro is the authority; most have made it 75,000. On that coast there are innumerable rivers, but those worth mentioning, from Locri, are the Sagra, and the traces of the town of Caulon, Mustia, the fort Consilinum, and Cocynthum, which some think the longest promontory of Italy. Then a gulf and the town Scolacium, Scylaceum, and Scylletium, a name given by the Athenians when they founded it, a place which the Terinaean gulf, meeting it, makes a peninsula, and on it the harbour called Hannibal's Camp; nowhere is Italy narrower: the breadth is 40,000 paces; and therefore Dionysius the Elder wished to cut it through at that place and add it to Sicily.

96| Navigable rivers there: the Carcinus, Crotalus, Semirus, Arogas, Thagines; inland the town Petelia; mount Clibanus; the promontory Lacinium, off whose coast, 10 from the land, is the island of Dioscoron, and another, Calypso's, which Homer is thought to have called Ogygia; besides these Tyris, Eranusa, Meloessa. Agrippa gives it as 70,000 distant from Caulon.

97| From the promontory Lacinium begins the second gulf of Europe, curved in a great circuit and bounded by the Acroceraunian promontory in Epirus, 75,000 distant from it. The town Croto; the river Neaethus; the town Thurii between the two rivers Crathis and Sybaris, where there was a city of the same name. Similarly between the Siris and the Aciris is Heraclea, at one time called Siris. The rivers Talandrum and Casuentum; the town Metapontum, where the third region of Italy comes to an end.

98| Of the inland Bruttii only the Aprustani; but of the Lucanians, the Atinates, Bantini, Eburini, Grumentini, Potentini, Sontini, Sirini, Tergilani, Ursentini, Volcentani, to whom the Numestrani are joined. Besides, that Lucanian Thebes perished, Cato is the authority, and that Pandosia was a city of the Lucanians, Theopompus says, in which Alexander of Epirus fell.

99| Connected is the second region, embracing the Hirpini, Calabria, Apulia and the Sallentini, with a gulf of 250,000, which is called the Tarentine from the town of the Laconians (situated in this innermost recess, the maritime colony that had been there being attached to it; it is 136,000 from the promontory Lacinium), sending out the opposite Calabria as a peninsula. The Greeks called it Messapia from a leader, and before that Peucetia, from Peucetius, brother of Oenotrus, in the Sallentine territory. Between the promontories there are 100. The breadth of the peninsula, from Tarentum to Brundisium by land route, extends 45,000, and much shorter from the harbour of Sasina.

100| The towns through the mainland from Tarentum: Uria, whose surname is Messapian, because of the Apulian one; Aletium; on the coast Senum, and Callipolis, which is now Anxa, 75,000 from Tarentum. Thence, 33,000, the promontory which they call the Iapygian Acra, where Italy runs out farthest into the seas. From it the town Basta and Hydruntum, nineteen miles, at the division of the Ionian and Adriatic seas, where the crossing into Greece is shortest, opposite the town of the Apolloniatae, the breadth of the strait running between being 50 and no more.

101| First Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, thought of continuing this interval by a crossing on foot, by throwing bridges across, and after him Marcus Varro, when he was in command of Pompey's fleets in the pirate war; other cares hindered both. From Hydruntum: Soletum, deserted; then Fratuentium; the harbour of Tarentum; the station Miltopes; Lupiae; Balesium; Caelia; Brundisium, 50 paces from Hydruntum, noted above all for the harbour of Italy and for a crossing at once surer and, as it were, longer, the Illyrian city Dyrrachium receiving it after a passage of 225,000.

102| Contiguous with Brundisium is the territory of the Poediculi. Nine young men and as many maidens from Illyria begot 12 peoples. The towns of the Poediculi: Rudiae, Gnatia, Barium; the rivers Iapyx, from the king, son of Daedalus, from whom the Iapygian Acra also takes its name; the Pactius; the Aufidus, flowing past Canusium from the mountains of the Hirpini.

103| From here Apulia, surnamed that of the Daunii, from a leader, the father-in-law of Diomedes; in it the town Salapia, famous for Hannibal's love of a courtesan; Sipuntum; Uria; the river Cerbalus, the end of the Daunii; the harbour Aggasus; the promontory of mount Garganus, from the Sallentine or Iapygian one, 234,000 in the circuit of the Garganus; the harbour Garna; the lake Pantanus; the river Fertor, rich in harbours. Teanum of the Apuli, and likewise Larinum, Cliternia; the river Tifernus.

104| Then the Frentane region. So the kinds of Apulians are three: the Teani, from a leader, of the Greeks; the Lucani, subdued by Calchas, who occupy places now held by the Atinates; of the Daunii, besides those named above, the colonies Luceria and Venusia, the towns Canusium and Arpi, at one time Argos Hippium, founded by Diomedes, then called Argyripa. Diomedes there destroyed the tribes of the Monades and Dardi and two cities, which passed into a jest in a proverb, Apina and Trica.

105| The rest inland in the second region: of the Hirpini one colony, Beneventum, with a more auspicious change of name, which was once called Maleventum; the Aeculani, Aquiloni, Abellinates surnamed Protropi, Compsani, Caudini, the Ligures who are surnamed Corneliani and those Baebiani, the Vescellani. The Ausculani, Aletrini, Abellinates surnamed Marsi, Atrani, Aecani, Alfellani, Atinates, Arpani, Borcani, Collatini, Corinenses, and, noted for a Roman disaster, the Cannenses, the Dirini, Forentani, Genusini, Herdonienses, Irini, the Larinates surnamed Frentani, Metinates from the Garganus, Mateolani, Neretini, Natini, Rubustini, Silvini, Strapellini, Turnantini, Vibinates, Venusini, Ulurtini. Of the inland Calabri: the Aezetini, Apamestini, Argetini, Butuntinenses, Deciani, Grumbestini, Norbanenses, Palionenses, Stulnini, Tutini. Of the Sallentini: the Aletini, Basterbini, Neretini, Uzentini, Veretini.

106| There follows the fourth region, of peoples among the bravest of Italy. On the coast of the Frentani, from the Tifernus, the river Trinium, rich in harbours; the towns Histonium, Buca, Hortona; the river Aternus. Inland the Anxani surnamed Frentani, the Carecini Supernates and Infernates, the Iuanenses. Of the Marrucini: the Teatini. Of the Paeligni: the Corfinienses, Superaequani, Sulmonenses. Of the Marsi: the Anxatini, Antinates, Fucentes, Lucenses, Marruvini. Of the Albenses: Alba at the Fucine lake.

107| Of the Aequiculani: the Cliternini and Carseolani. Of the Vestini: the Angulani, Pennienses, Peltuinates, to whom are joined the Aufinates Cismontani. Of the Samnites, whom the Greeks too called Saunitae, as well as Sabelli: the colonies Bovianum Vetus and another surnamed that of the Undecumani, the Aufidenates, Aesernini, Fagifulani, Ficolenses, Saepinates, Tereventinates. Of the Sabines: the Amiternini, Curenses, Forum Decii, Forum Novum, the Fidenates, Interamnates, Nursini, Nomentani, Reatini, the Trebulani who are surnamed Mutuesci and those called Suffenates, the Tiburtes, Tarinates.

108| In this region, of the Aequicoli there have perished the Comini, Tadiates, Caedici and Alfaterni. Gellianus is the authority that the town of the Marsi, Archippe, founded by Marsyas, leader of the Lydians, was swallowed by the Fucine lake; likewise that of the Vidicini in Picenum was destroyed by the Romans, Valerianus says. The Sabines, as some have thought, were called Sebini from religion and the worship of the gods; they dwell by the Velini lakes, among dewy hills.

109| The river Nar drains them with its sulphurous waters, seeking the Tiber from them; the Avens, coming from mount Fiscellus past the groves of Vacuna and Reate, refills them, burying itself in those same lakes. But from another part the Anio, rising in the mountain of the Trebani, brings down into the Tiber three lakes noted for their loveliness, which gave their name to Sublaqueum. Marcus Varro reports that the lake of Cutiliae in the Reatine territory, in which an island floats, is the navel of Italy. Below the Sabines is Latium; on the flank Picenum; behind, Umbria, the ridges of the Appennine fencing in the Sabines on both sides.

110| The fifth region is Picenum's, once of a most abundant population. 360,000 of the Picentes came under the protection of the Roman people. They are sprung from the Sabines by a vow of a sacred spring. They held it from the river Aternus, where now is the Hadrian territory and the colony Hadria, 6,000 from the sea. The river Vomanus; the Praetutian and Palmensian territory; likewise Castrum Novum; the river Batinus; Truentum with the river of that name, the only one of the Liburnian places remaining in Italy; the rivers Albula, Tessuinus, Helvinus, where the Praetutian region ends and that of the Picentes begins.

111| The town Cupra; the fort of the Firmani, and above it the colony Asculum, the most noble inland town of Picenum; Novana. On the coast Cluana, Potentia, Numana (a Siculan foundation), and the colony Ancona, founded by the same people, set beside the promontory Cunerus, at the very elbow of the coast as it bends, 183,000 from the Garganus. Inland the Auximates, Beregrani, Cingulani, the Cuprenses surnamed Montani, the Falerienses, Pausulani, Planinenses, Ricinenses, Septempedani, Tolentinates, Traienses, and the Urbesalvia Pollentini.

112| To these will be joined the sixth region, embracing Umbria and the Gallic territory on this side of Ariminum. From Ancona begins the Gallic coast, surnamed that of Toga-wearing Gaul. The Siculi and Liburni held most of that tract, above all the Palmensian, Praetutian and Hadrian territory. The Umbri expelled them, Etruria these, the Gauls this one. The Umbri are thought the most ancient people of Italy, so that they think them called Ombrii by the Greeks, because they survived the rains in the flooding of the lands. The Tusci are found to have conquered three hundred of their towns.

113| Now on the coast the river Aesis; Senagallia; the river Metaurus; the colonies Fanum Fortunae, Pisaurum with its river, and inland Hispellum and Tuder. For the rest: the Amerini, Attidiates, Asisinates, Arnates, Aesinates, Camertes, Casuentillani, Carsulani, the Dolates surnamed Sallentini, Fulginiates, Foroflaminienses, the Foroiulienses surnamed Concupienses, the Forobrentani, Forosempronienses, Iguini, the Interamnates surnamed Nartes, the Mevanates, Mevaniolenses, Matilicates, the Narnienses, which town

114| was formerly called Nequinum; the Nucerini surnamed Favonienses and Camellani, the Ocriculani, Ostrani, the Pitinates surnamed Pisuertes and others Mergentini, the Plestini, Sentinates, Sarsinates, Spoletini, Suasani, Sestinates, Suillates, Tadinates, Trebiates, Tuficani, the Tifernates surnamed Tiberini and others Metaurenses, the Vesinicates, the Urvinates surnamed Metaurenses and others Hortenses, the Vettonenses, Vindinates, Visuentani. In this region there have perished the Feliginates and those who held Clusiolum above Interamna, and the Sarranates, with the towns Acerrae, which were surnamed Vafriae, Turocaelum, which was Vettiolum, likewise the Solinates, Curiates, Falinates, Sapinates. Perished too the Arinates with Crinivolum, and the Usidicani, Plangenses, Paesinates and Caelestini. Ameria, written of above, Cato reports to have been founded 963 years before the war with Perses.

115| The eighth region has as its boundaries Ariminum, the Po and the Appennine. On the coast the river Crustumium; the colony Ariminum, with the rivers Ariminus and Aprusa; the river Rubico, once the end of Italy. From it the Sapis, Utis and Anemo; Ravenna, a Sabine town, on the river Bedesis, 105,000 from Ancona; and close to the sea, Butrium of the Umbri. Inland the colonies Bononia, called Felsina when it was the foremost city of Etruria, Brixillum, Mutina, Parma, Placentia.

116| The towns Caesena, Claterna, the Forums of Clodius, Livius, Popilius, of the Druentini, Cornelius, Licinius; the Faventini, Fidentini, Otesini, Padinates; the Regienses, from Lepidus; the Solonates and the Gallian glades, whose people are surnamed Aquinates; the Tannetani; the Veleiates surnamed Vetti Regiates; the Urbanates. In this region the Boii have perished, whose tribes Cato is the authority were 112, and likewise the Senones, who took Rome.

117| The Po, flowing from the lap of mount Vesulus, raised to the loftiest summit of the Alps, in the territory of the Ligurian Bagienni, from a spring worth seeing, and hiding itself in a tunnel and rising again in the territory of the Forovibienses, inferior in renown to no river, called Eridanus by the Greeks and made illustrious by the punishment of Phaethon, is swollen at the rising of the Dog Star by melting snows, more of a torrent for the fields than for ships, yet claiming nothing for itself from what it has seized, and, where it leaves it, bestowing a gift by its fertility.

118| Running 300,000 paces from its source and adding ninety less two by its windings, and receiving not only navigable Appennine and Alpine rivers but also immense lakes pouring themselves into it, it carries to the Adriatic sea 30 rivers in all, the most famous of them from the Appennine side being the Iactum, Tanarus, the Placentine Trebia, Tarus, Incia, Gabellus, Scultenna, Rhenus, and from the Alps the Stura, Orgus, the two Duriae, Sesis, Ticinus, Lambrus, Addua, Ollius, Mincius.

119| Nor is any other river of so great an increase within so short a space. It is pressed hard by the mass of its waters and driven into the deep, heavy upon the earth; although it is drawn off into streams and ditches between Ravenna and Altinum for 120,000 paces, yet where it discharges more widely it is said to make the Seven Seas. The Augustan ditch is drawn to Ravenna, where it is called Padusa, formerly named Messanicus. The next mouth from there has the size of a harbour, and is called that of the Vatrenus, where Claudius Caesar, returning in triumph from Britain, entered the Adriatic in that huge house, rather than ship.

120| This mouth was earlier called the Eridanus; by others the Spineticum, from the city Spina, which stood near, powerful, as is believed from the treasuries at Delphi, and founded by Diomedes. There the river Vatrenus, from the territory of Forum Cornelii, swells the Po. The next mouth from there is that of Caprasia, then Sagis, then Volane, which was formerly called Olane; all these are by the Flavian ditch, which the Tusci first made from the Sagis, the force of the river being carried off crosswise into the marshes of the Atriani, which are called the Seven Seas, with the noble harbour of the Tuscan town Atria, from which the sea now called Hadriatic was formerly called Atriatic.

121| From there the full mouths Carbonaria, Fossiones and Philistina, which others call Tartarus, all arising from the overflow of the Philistine ditch, with the Atesis from the Alps of Tridentum and the Togisonus from the fields of the Patavini joining. A part of them also makes the nearest harbour, Brundulum, as the two Meduaci and the Clodian ditch make Aedron. With these the Po mingles and pours itself out through them, reported by most to make, like the Nile in Egypt (what they call the Delta), a triangular figure between the Alps and the coast of the sea, in a circuit of stadia II.

122| It is a shame to borrow from the Greeks the account of Italy, yet Metrodorus of Scepsis says that, because around its spring there are many pitch trees, which in Gaulish are called padi, it received this name; in the language of the Ligures, indeed, the river itself is called Bodincus, which signifies bottomless. In support of this argument there is nearby a town Industria, with the old name Bodincomagum, where the chief depth begins.

123| The region from it is called Transpadana, the eleventh, wholly inland, to which it conveys everything of the sea in its fruitful channel. The towns: Forum Vibii, Segusio; colonies from the foot of the Alps, Augusta of the Taurini (from there the Po is navigable), of the ancient Ligurian stock; then Augusta Praetoria of the Salassi, near the twin gates of the Alps, the Graian and the Poenine (they record that the Poeni crossed by the latter, Hercules by the Graian); the town Eporedia, founded by the Roman people at the bidding of the Sibylline books. The Gauls call eporedias good tamers of horses.

124| Vercellae of the Libicii, sprung from the Sallui; Novaria from the Vertamocori, to this day a canton of the Vocontii, not of the Ligures as Cato thinks, of whom the Laevi and Marici founded Ticinum, not far from the Po, as the Boii, setting out from beyond the Alps, founded Laus Pompeia, and the Insubres Mediolanum. Cato is the authority that Comum, Bergomum, Licini Forum and some peoples round about are of the stock of the Oromobii, but confesses that he does not know the origin of the people, which Cornelius Alexander teaches arose from Greece, interpreting even the name as "people who pass their life in the mountains."

125| In this region the town of the Oromobii, Parra, perished, from which Cato said the Bergomates sprang, even now revealing itself as situated higher than it was fortunate. Perished also the Caturiges, exiles of the Insubres, and Spina, mentioned above, and likewise Melpum, outstanding for its wealth, which was destroyed by the Insubres, Boii and Senones on the very day when Camillus captured Veii, Cornelius Nepos has related.

126| There follows the tenth region of Italy, set beside the Adriatic sea, in which are Venetia; the river Silis from the mountains of Tarvisium; the town Altinum; the river Liquentia from the mountains of Opitergium, and a harbour of the same name; the colony Concordia; the rivers and harbours Reatinum, Tiliaventum Maius and Minus, Anaxum, into which the Varamus flows down, Alsa, Natiso with the Turrus, flowing past the colony Aquileia, situated 15,000 paces from the sea.

127| This region is that of the Carni, and joined to it that of the Iapudes; the river Timavus; the fort Pucinum, famous for its wine; the Tergestine gulf; the colony Tergeste, 33,000 from Aquileia. Beyond it six miles, the river Formio, 189,000 from Ravenna, the old boundary of an enlarged Italy, now that of Histria. This, as having been named from the river Hister, flowing out into the Adriatic from the river Danube, which is also the Hister, opposite the mouths of the Po, the sea between them sweetening by their contrary beating, most have said falsely, and Nepos too, a dweller on the Po;

128| for no river from the Danube pours out into the Adriatic sea. I believe they were deceived because the ship Argo came down by a river into the Adriatic sea close to Tergeste, and it is not now agreed by what river. The more careful relate that it was carried over the Alps on men's shoulders, but that it ascended the Hister, then the Savus, then the Nauportus, which has its name from this cause, rising between Emona and the Alps.

129| Histria runs out like a peninsula. Some have given its breadth as 40,000 and its circuit 125,000, and likewise of the adjoining Liburnia and of the Flanatic gulf, others 225,000, others of Liburnia 180,000. Some advanced Iapudia to the Flanatic gulf, 130,000 behind Histria, and then made Liburnia 150,000. Tuditanus, who subdued the Histri, inscribed on his statue there: FROM AQUILEIA TO THE RIVER TITIUS, 2,000 STADIA. The towns of Histria of Roman citizens: Agida, Parentium, and the colony Pola, which is now Pietas Iulia, once founded by Colchians; it is 105,000 from Tergeste. Next the town Nesactium and, now the end of Italy, the river Arsia. The crossing to Pola from Ancona is 120,000 paces.

130| Inland in the tenth region, the colonies: Cremona; Brixia in the territory of the Cenomani; of the Veneti, however, Ateste, and the towns Acelum, Patavium, Opitergium, Belunum, Vicetia. Mantua, alone remaining of the Tuscans beyond the Po. Cato is the authority that the Veneti are sprung of Trojan stock, and that the Cenomani dwelt near Massilia among the Volcae. The Feltrini, Tridentini and Beruenses are Raetic towns; Verona, of the Raeti and Euganei; the Iulienses, of the Carni. Then, those whom it is not pertinent to name more minutely: the Alutrenses, Asseriates, Flamonienses Vanienses and others surnamed Carici, the Foroiulienses surnamed Transpadani, the Foretani, Nedinates, Quarqueni, Tarvisani, Togienses, Varvari.

131| In this region there perished along the coast Irmene, Pellaon, Palsicium; of the Veneti, Atina and Caelina; of the Carni, Segesta and Ocra; of the Taurisci, Noreia. And a town at the twelfth milestone from Aquileia was destroyed by Marcus Claudius Marcellus, even against the will of the senate, Lucius Piso is the authority. In this region and the eleventh, there are famous lakes, and rivers which are their offspring or nurslings, if only they give back what they have received, as Lake Como the Addua, the Verbannus the Ticinus, the Benacus the Mincius, the Sebinnus the Ollius, the Eupilis the Lambrus, all inhabitants of the Po.

132| Caelius reports that the Alps extend in length 10 paces from the Upper sea to the Lower, Timagenes 25,000 paces less, and in breadth Cornelius Nepos 100, Titus Livius 3,000 stadia, each in different places. For they even sometimes exceed a hundred miles, where they separate Germany from Italy, and do not reach 70,000 in the rest of their extent, slender as though by nature's providence. The breadth of Italy below their roots, from the Varus through Vada Sabatia, the Taurini, Comum, Brixia, Verona, Vicetia, Opitergium, Aquileia, Tergeste, Pola, to the Arsia, gathers up 745,000 paces.

133| The inhabitants of the Alps are many peoples, but the famous ones, from Pola to the region of Tergeste, are the Fecusses, Subocrini, Catali and Menoncaleni, and next to the Carni the Taurisci, once so called, now Norici. Bordering on these are the Raeti and Vindelici, all divided into many communities. The Raeti are thought to be the offspring of the Tusci, driven out by the Gauls under a leader Raetus. Then, with the breast of the Alps turned toward Italy, there are the Euganean peoples of Latin right, of whom Cato enumerates 34 towns.

134| Of these the Trumplini, a people for sale with their lands, then the Camunni and several similar ones attached to the neighbouring municipalities. The Lepontii and Salassi the same Cato judges to be of the Taurisci people; most others believe the Lepontii to be those left behind from the company of Hercules, by an interpretation of the Greek name, their limbs having been burnt by snow in the crossing of the Alps. Of the same army, they say, were also the Graii, the inhabitants of the Graian Alps, and the Euganei, outstanding by birth, from which the name is drawn. Their capital is Stoenos.

135| Of the Raeti, the Vennonenses and Sarunetes live by the sources of the river Rhine; of the Lepontii, those who are called Uberi, by the source of the Rhone, in the same tract of the Alps. There are besides inhabitants granted Latin right, such as the Octodurenses and the neighbouring Ceutrones, the Cottian communities, and the Turi, sprung from the Ligures, the Bagienni Ligures and those called Montani, and many kinds of the Capillati, toward the border of the Ligurian sea.

136| It does not seem out of place to add at this point the inscription from the trophy of the Alps, which is as follows: TO THE EMPEROR CAESAR AUGUSTUS, SON OF THE DEIFIED, PONTIFEX MAXIMUS, SALUTED EMPEROR 13 TIMES, IN THE 17TH YEAR OF TRIBUNICIAN POWER, THE SENATE AND PEOPLE OF ROME, BECAUSE UNDER HIS LEADERSHIP AND AUSPICES ALL THE ALPINE PEOPLES WHICH REACHED FROM THE UPPER SEA DOWN TO THE LOWER HAVE BEEN BROUGHT UNDER THE SWAY OF THE ROMAN PEOPLE. ALPINE PEOPLES CONQUERED: THE TRUMPILINI,

137| · THE CAMUNNI · VENOSTES · VENNONETES · ISARCI · BREUNI · GENAUNES · FOCUNATES · FOUR PEOPLES OF THE VINDELICI: COSUANETES · RUCINATES · LICATES · CATENATES · AMBISONTES · RUGUSCI · SUANETES · CALUCONES · BRIXENETES · LEPONTII · UBERI · NANTUATES · SEDUNI · VARAGRI · SALASSI · ACITAVONES · MEDULLI · UCENNI · CATURIGES · BRIGIANI · SOGIONTII · BRODIONTII · NEMALONI · EDENATES · VESUBIANI · VEAMINI · GALLITAE · TRIULLATI · ECDINI · VERGUNNI · EGUI · TURI · NEMATURI. ORATELLI · NERUSI · VELAUNI · SUETRI.

138| Not added are the 15 Cottian communities, which had not been hostile, and likewise those attached to municipalities by the Pompeian law. This is Italy sacred to the gods, these are its peoples, these the towns of its nations. Besides this, Italy, which in the consulship of Lucius Aemilius Paulus and Gaius Atilius Regulus, when a Gallic uprising was announced, alone, without any foreign aids, and even then without the Transpadanes, armed 80,000 cavalry and 700,000 infantry, yields to no land in fertility in metals of every kind; but this has been forbidden by an old decree of the senators, bidding that Italy be spared.

139| The people of the Liburni is joined to the Arsia as far as the river Titius. Part of it were the Mentores, Himani, Encheleae, Bulini and those whom Callimachus calls Peucetii; now the whole is called by one name, generically, Illyricum. Few of the names of the peoples are worth saying or easy. The Iapudes and 14 communities of the Liburni go to the jurisdiction of Scardona, of whom it would not be wearisome to name the Lacinienses, Stulpini, Burnistae and Olbonenses. From that jurisdiction the Alutae, Flanates (from whom the gulf is named), Lopsi, Varvarini, and the exempt Asseriates have Italian right, and of the islands the Fertinates and Curictae.

140| For the rest, the towns along the coast from Nesactium are Alvona, Flanona, Tarsatica, Senia, Lopsica, Ortoplinia, Vegium, Argyruntum, Corinium, Aenona, the community of the Pasini, and the river Telavium, at which Iapudia ends. The islands of this gulf with towns, besides those indicated above, are Absortium, Arba, Crexi, Gissa and Portunata. Again on the mainland is the colony of Iader, which is 160,000 from Pola; then, 30,000 further, the island of Colentum; and at 43,000 the mouth of the river Titius.

141| The end of Liburnia and the beginning of Dalmatia is Scardona, on that river, 12,000 paces from the sea. Then come the ancient region of the Tariotae and the fortress of Tariona; Diomedes' promontory, or, according to others, the peninsula Hyllis, 100 in circuit; Tragurium, a town of Roman citizens, known for its marble; Siculi, a place to which the deified Claudius sent veterans; and the colony of Salona, 112,000 from Iader.

142| To Salona come for justice, with their strength divided into decuries, the Delmatae with 342 decuries, the Deuri with 25, the Ditiones with 239, the Maezei with 269 and the Sardeates with 52. In this tract are Burnum, Andetrium and Tribulium, fortresses made famous by battles. From the islands too come the Issaei, the Solentini, the Separi and the Epetini. After these are the fortresses of Petuntium, Nareste and Oneum. Narona, a colony and the seat of the third district, is 85 paces from Salona, lying on the river of its own name, 20,000 paces from the sea. Marcus Varro states that 89 communities used to resort there;

143| now almost the only ones known are the Cerauni with 24 decuries, the Daversi 17, the Desitiates 103, the Docleatae 33, the Deretini 14, the Deraemistae 30, the Dindari 33, the Glinditiones 44, the Melcumani 24, the Naresi 102, the Scirtari 72, the Siculotae 24, and the Vardaei, once the plunderers of Italy, with no more than 20 decuries. Besides these, the Ozuaei, Partheni, Cavi, Haemasi, Masthitae and Arinistae once held that tract.

144| The colony of Epidaurum is 100 paces from the river Naro. After Epidaurum come the towns of Roman citizens Rhizinium, Acruium, Butuanum, and Olcinium, which was formerly named Colchinium and was founded by Colchians; the river Drino, and above it the town of Roman citizens Scodra, 18,000 from the sea; and besides these the fading memory of many Greek towns and also of powerful communities. For in that tract were the Labeatae, Senedi, Rudini, Sasaei and Grabaei; and the Illyrians properly so called, the Taulanti and the Pyraei keep their name. On the coast is the promontory of Nymphaeum, and the town of Lissus, of Roman citizens, 100 paces from Epidaurum.

145| From Lissus begins the province of Macedonia. Its peoples are the Partheni and, behind them, the Dassaretae; the mountains of Candavia are 78,000 paces from Dyrrachium. On the coast are Denda, a town of Roman citizens; the colony of Epidamnum, called Dyrrachium by the Romans because of its ill-omened name; the river Aous, named Aeas by some; and Apollonia, once a colony of the Corinthians, lying 4,000 paces back from the sea, in whose territory the barbarian Amantes and Buliones live around the famous Nymphaeum. On the coast again is Oricum, a town founded by Colchians. There Epirus begins, with the Acroceraunian mountains, at which we fixed the end of this gulf of Europe. Oricum is 80,000 from the Sallentine promontory of Italy.

146| Behind the Carni and the Iapudes, where the great Hister flows, the Norici adjoin the Raeti. Their towns are Virunum, Celeia, Teurnia, Aguntum and Iuvaum, all of them Claudian, and Flavium Solvense. Adjoining the Norici are Lake Pelso and the deserts of the Boii; yet these are now inhabited, by the colony of the deified Claudius at Savaria and by the town of Scarabantia Iulia.

147| Then come the acorn-bearing lands of Pannonia, where the ridges of the Alps, growing gentler as they run from north to south through the middle of Illyricum, settle down in a soft slope to right and left. The part that faces the Adriatic sea is called Dalmatia and the Illyricum mentioned above; Pannonia stretches toward the north, and is bounded on that side by the Danube. In it are the colonies of Emona and Siscia. Famous and navigable rivers flow down into the Danube: the Draus, the more violent, from the Norici, and the Saus, the gentler, from the Carnic Alps, 120,000 apart; the Draus through the Serretes, Serapilli, Iasi and Andizetes, the Saus through the Colapiani and the Breuci. Such are the chief peoples;

148| besides them there are the Arviates, Azali, Amantini, Belgites, Catari, Cornacates, Eravisci, Hercuniates, Latovici, Oseriates and Varciani. There is Mount Claudius, with the Scordisci on its front and the Taurisci on its back. In the Saus is the island of Metubarbis, the largest of river islands. Other rivers worth mentioning: the Colapis, flowing into the Saus near Siscia, with its double channel forms an island there called Segestica; another river, the Bacuntius, flows into the Saus [….] at the town of Sirmium, where the community of the Sirmienses and the Amantini is. From there, 45,000 away, is Taurunum, where the Saus mingles with the Danube. Higher up the Valdasus and the Urpanus flow in, themselves not undistinguished.

149| Adjoining Pannonia is the province called Moesia, which runs down with the Danube all the way to the Pontus. It begins at the confluence mentioned above. In it are the Dardani, Celegeri, Triballi, Timachi, Moesi, the Thracians, and, bordering on the Pontus, the Scythians. Its famous rivers are, from the Dardani, the Margus, the Pingus and the Timachus; from Rhodope the Oescus; and from Haemus the Utus, the Asamus and the Ieterus.

150| The breadth of Illyricum, where it is greatest, totals 325,000 paces; its length, running from the river Arsia as far as the Drinius river, 530,000. Agrippa gives 175,000 for the stretch between the Drinius and the Acroceraunian promontory, and for the whole gulf of Italy and Illyricum, in circuit, 1,700,000. In it there are two seas, divided at the boundary we have drawn: the Ionian in the first part, and further in the Adriatic, which they call the Upper Sea.

151| No islands in the Ausonian sea deserve mention beyond those already named. In the Ionian there are a few on the Calabrian coast off Brundisium, which form a harbor by lying across its mouth; and opposite the Apulian coast Diomedia, conspicuous for the monument of Diomedes, and another of the same name, called Teutria by some. The coast of Illyricum is crowded with more than a thousand islands, since the sea is shallow by nature and estuaries with narrow channels run in among them. Famous are those off the mouths of the Timavus, with hot springs that rise with the tide of the sea; and near the territory of the Histri, Cissa, the Pullariae, and those the Greeks call the Absyrtides, after Medea's brother, who was killed there.

152| Near these are the ones they named the Electrides, in which amber, which they call electrum, was supposed to be found: the surest proof of Greek vanity, so much so that it has never been settled which of the islands they mean. Opposite Iader is Lissa, and the one that has been named; opposite the Liburni are several Crateae and no fewer Liburnicae and Celadussae; opposite Tragurium is Bova, and Brattia, praised for its goats, Issa, of Roman citizens, and Pharia with its town. From Issa, Corcyra, surnamed Melaena, with a town of the Cnidians, is 25,000 distant; between it and Illyricum is Melite, from which, as Callimachus states, Melitaean puppies get their name. 15,000 from it are the 7 Elaphites; and in the Ionian sea, 2,000 paces from Oricum, is Sason, known as a pirates' station.

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